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【中文标题】红色中国的绿色大跃进
【原文标题】Red China’s Green Leap Forward
【登载媒体】外交政策
【原文作者】CHRISTINA LARSON
【原文链接】http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/06/the_green_leap_forward
中国有一个五年计划，成为世界顶尖的绿色建筑国家，它能做到吗？
《纽约时报》最近把中国列为世界“伟大建筑观念的孵化器”，这其实是有一定道理的。这个国家到处都在进行试验性的建筑展示，或许是因为财力雄厚的政府急于炫耀，但这些极富大胆美学的当代中国建筑物使用了越来越多高的环境标准。中国已经证明，绿色建筑物是赢得世界瞩目的有效途径，同时还能省钱。但随着这个国家建筑业继续蓬勃发展，其对绿色建筑物的投入要经受一些考验：它仅仅是为了让外国人印象深刻的流行时尚，还是北京矢志于在21世纪成为环境经济领袖的严肃举措？中国最近一个绿色建筑物的实例是万科中心（上图），它位于深圳，是一个结合了办公室、酒店、展览中心的建筑物。这座由Steven Holl设计的建筑物被LEED这个国际认可的建筑物评定体系授予“白金”级（最高级）。
万科中心使用了大量的可再生和可循环利用的建筑材料，比如竹子。还有一些具有持续性的设计特点，包括房顶的太阳能板可提供办公室15％的用电量，还有循环水系统和大面积的公共绿地。
中国对绿色建筑物的钟情始于若干年前开始的全国范围建筑热潮。2004年，当北京的中国中央电视台（CCTV）办公大楼破土动工时，建筑的侧重是“吸引眼球、非正统的地标级建设项目”。就像它看起来那样令人吃惊，这个34层楼的建筑物有6个独立的水平面和垂直面——它一点都不符合任何绿色建筑标准。
筹备北京2008年奥运会的时候，绿色建筑物是这个国家关注的重点——至少表面上是如此。被称为鸟巢的国家体育场被有些人推崇为“超级绿色机器”，原因是其雨水收集系统、为草地过滤掉阳光的透明屋顶、自然通风系统和一系列保护体育场免受天气和雨水侵蚀的顶层“垫子”。但是，评论人士认为，目前基本空置的价值4.5亿美元的建筑物所使用的大量钢材是极度的浪费。一位建筑评论家对美国环境建筑杂志说，这个建筑物绝非可持续性建筑物，因为“它的造价太高，消耗了太多的钢材和能源……或许是建造同类型体育场馆所消耗资源的10倍，甚至是20倍。”
占地160英亩的奥运村被宣称是“世界上最大的绿色建筑群”，它的特点包括太阳能的绿色屋顶和用收集到的雨水进行供热和制冷的热交换系统。据自然资源保护委员会提供的信息，村子里的42座建筑物比普通北京居民住宅节省50％的能源。它是美国本土之外第一个被LEED授予“黄金级”认证的的建筑群，也是当时最大的一个LEED认证建筑群。
2008年奥林匹克国家水上中心包括了三个绿色奥运建设项目。这个被称为“水立方”的设计作品是一个盒子形状的建筑物，外部覆盖着有机“泡泡”，用来收集太阳能为水池和场馆内部供热。
由万科设计师操刀的北京当代MOMA居民楼占地200万平方英尺，是中国最著名的绿色建筑物之一。它在2009年竣工，几座建筑物之间由桥梁链接，据一篇报道说，这“解决了被冷冰冰的大门锁住的社区，改变了让很多亚洲城市居民难以忍受的居住观念。”建筑物中有咖啡厅、游泳池、中水循环处理设备和世界上最大的一个地热系统。建筑师Steven Holl说：“我们在建造的是北京历史上最大规模的绿色社区，它将成为众多城市建筑物的榜样。”
在中国投资的外国公司也搭上了环保这趟车。北京的诺基亚中国校园是这家芬兰移动电话公司设立的地区总部，它是这家公司第一个符合最高国际绿色标准的建筑物。它的外墙有双层玻璃，大约减少了15％的能源需求，27％的原材料来自本地。
2006年，在北京极富声望的清华大学校园中，一队意大利工程师、建筑师和环保研究者设计并建造了中意环境节能楼（SIEEB）。它将成为一个利用最新绿色科技的环境研究中心，这是形式于内容的理想结合产物。
中国政府希望用自身态度鲜明的绿色倾向来消除其忽视环保的名声。广州在2010年11月建成了广东塔，以迎接第16届亚运会。塔身利用了太阳能科技的最新产物——光电技术。
2010年上海世博会最醒目的建筑物之一是中国馆，也被称作东方之冠，设计者是华南理工学院建筑设计院院长何镜堂。建筑物的外部有一个温度缓冲区，内部有自然通风系统。场馆倒立的形状为整个建筑物提供了一个阴凉的环境，同时兼顾周边绿地。顶部有生态景观和雨水收集设备。
中国北方城市天津，一辆卡车驶过一个“生态城”施工现场。中国所面临的挑战是，不仅仅要让绿色建筑物作为炫耀建设项目的因素，还要让它成为在这个国家大规模兴起的施工热潮中的通行标准。
上海交通大学被认为是中国排名第二位的工程专业学校，它正在从事一项最重要的高科技研究项目——一个包罗万象的展厅，有点像一个未来主义装饰的家得宝商场。
两年前，这所位于上海树木茂密郊区的大学收到了一笔数百万美元的政府款项，为中国建造一个“绿色居住”的样板工程，实际上就是一个博物馆。那些吸热门窗和屋顶太阳能电池等技术，可以被中国建筑师和房地产开发商用来设计节能的居住小区和别墅。
在一个阳光明媚的下午，上海交通大学动力与能源工程学院副院长，兼制冷与低温工程研究所所长王如竹带领我简略地参观了一圈。我看到的是中国人即将享受到的超级节能、高科技的生活方式，或者说，是对未来绿色生活的憧憬。就像在中国看到的其它事物一样，这些场景令我久久难忘。但是，我们还在期盼这些技术从博物馆中走到现实生活里是什么样子的。
在中国，每年出现的新建筑物数量是全世界的一半。政府对压缩资源的兴趣非常明显，其原因并不是无私地为全球生态环境做贡献。中国城市化的速度相当快，在未来20年，大约有3.5亿人口从乡村涌入城市，政府每年需要建造相当于两个纽约市的居住面积。其对能源的需求呈危险式增长，仅和去年相比就上升了12％。满足这种需求不是一件简单的事情，中国的很多城市还在不定期地限电（今年夏天的旱情更让电力供应形势紧张，干涸的河流让水力发电技术无用武之地）。
北京知道世上没有灵丹妙药，因此重金投入在提高传统煤炭能源和清洁能源效率方面的研究。据自然资源保护委员会提供的数据，中国的建筑物施工——包括取暖、空调和电力——每年消耗这个国家25％到27％的能源。中国的住房和城乡建设部预测，到2020年，与施工相关的能源需求将上升70％，除非绿色建筑物大面积铺开。这就是为什么北京最近发布的五年计划借鉴了吉米卡特对低温供暖器的热衷，和他臭名昭著的“穿毛衣”运动。（顺便说一句，这里没有人担心连任的问题。）
具体来说，中国的五年发展计划对施工能源使用和“绿色建筑物”这个70年代由于石油禁运而在美国兴起的名词表示出强烈的兴趣。6月15日，住建部能源利用办公室主任郝滨宣布，北京正在研究一个即将在全国范围推行的建筑物施工能源标准体系。他在上海全球绿色建筑大会上对媒体代表说，政府还在考虑对一些节能建筑材料给与补贴。实际上，政府已经在支持一系列的研究和展示项目。
上海的王教授，就是北京新关注点的众多受益人之一。现年50多岁的他，自从1980年的学生时代就一直待在上海交通大学。他的生活随着时间发生了巨大的变化。他站在学校标志性的红色大门前，向我讲述学生时居住在城里单身宿舍的事情。6到8个男孩子住在一间屋里，毫无舒适可言。现在，他住在大学的新区，位于环境优美的徐汇区一个郊外住宅区。那里有草地和鱼池，专职司机每天载着他在城市间穿梭。他对自己人生中的幸运也颇感意外，他在这项国家前沿的工作中，一边享受一边憧憬中国家庭未来的生活状态。他对我说，“最重要的技术细节”——比如更先进的隔热技术——并非最激动人心的技术发展。
最终的绿色科技展示馆预计在今年夏末向公众开放，但是王同意让我先睹为快。从外表上看，这座三层由玻璃覆盖的建筑物上有一个倾斜的屋顶，就像一个巨大的钢琴。内部依然在装修过程中，我们脚下是散落在地板上的五金件，落满厚厚的灰尘，还有各种各样预制结构件没有拆封。站在一个巨大的落地窗前，王指着外边一个巨大的土丘对我说，下面埋着的是一个地热泵。它可以在冬天吸收地下的热量，在夏天向地下排出热量，这可以降低居民对锅炉和空调的需求。
在楼上，他带我参观了两个展示单元，看起来似乎是普通中国人的家庭住房，一个50平米、一个70平米。70平米的住宅有一个小客厅，摆着一台电视，墙上有一个宜家模样的架子。还有一个小小的卧室，一个豪华的双人床几乎把卧室占满了，以及一个长条形的狭窄厨房和一间浴室。我们准备离开的时候，他指着门旁边的一个小电脑控制板对我说，我们可以设置一些程序，当人们不在家的时候，自动关闭一些不需要的电器设备。
最后我们走上屋顶，可以看到周围科研园区的景色，微软和其它外国科技公司都在这里建立了实验室。王的团队在这里安装了三排不同类型的太阳能板。
我问王，像他这样的绿色建筑模式有多大可能在现实中大面积铺开。近几年，外国建筑师已经设计了一系列昂贵、令人瞩目的绿色建筑物——从Steven Holl和李虎的北京当代MOMA，到清华大学校园中的中意环境节能楼——但政府的计划部门和当地建筑设计师却似乎一直未有动作。
他说：“这是一个非常好的问题，非常好，但也很难回答。这些外国设计师的异乎寻常的作品当然不能直接应用到现实中。”
后来，我又向一位上海的美国绿色科技投资顾问Tom McCawley提过同样的问题，他的客户包括乌鲁木齐市和上海迪斯尼乐园。他同意，外国设计师在中国通常难以设计出非一次性的项目。他说：“很多人希望把绿色概念引入中国，但他们不了解这里的决策过程。”但是，他认为中国面临的最大挑战还是成本（绿色建筑材料的成本要高出10％）和质量控制。
建造节能建筑物需要精准的设计和施工，这一点在大批量施工过程中很难监控，尤其是目前建筑从业人员大都是只会抡大锤的农民工，这些人不熟悉这个新领域，技能水平也比较低。他说：“建造绿色建筑物需要整合大量的技术和沟通，即使在美国也不是件容易的事，通常都是由较有经验的施工队伍来完成。中国每年建造20亿平米的居住空间，想想看，怎样才能建立一支监控质量的团队。”
McCawley给我讲了一个告诫性的故事。西部城市成都的一个开发商计划采用一种新型的空调技术，可以节省大约25％的能源。其原理是把通风管道安装在地板中，而不是天花板上。（通常，接近天花板的空间没有人活动，给那里的空气制冷会浪费很多能源。）最后却无法实施，因为整个大楼的密封结构不好。“你找不到技术合格的建筑作品，在中国的建筑物中找不到笔直的一条线。房顶不是真材实料的，地板不是水平的，你甚至在自己的房间中找不到一个90度的角。”
自然资源保护委员会绿色建筑项目部主任金瑞东与中国政府决策部门合作紧密。他来自西部大城市重庆，那里是中国发展最快的城市，每年吸纳1百万新居民，新建筑物层出不穷。他强烈意识到了飞速发展所带来的问题：“现实中的绿色建筑物需要一些特殊的关照，很多开发商不懂得怎样正确地做绝缘隔热等工作，他们时常会犯错误。于是，改正错误就花费了大量的时间和成本。总体来看，绿色建筑物其实不一定比其它建筑物的造价要昂贵，但是施工过程中频繁出现的问题给你造成了这种印象。”
因此就出现了矛盾。理论上说，中国有机会避免很多西方国家发展过程中在环境问题上所犯下的错误，因为它几乎是在一片废墟上建立一座城市。但是对施工速度的需求意味着建筑质量急剧恶化，几乎无法持续5年。在上海虹桥机场2号航站楼的出发大厅，有一排水桶整齐地摆在地板上，精确地接住天花板上漏下的雨水。
有了绿色建筑物，全国范围有巨大的能源节省预期，但施工过程的检修和返工任务也是极重的。而让一个高科技展示厅变得尽善尽美，仅仅是举手之劳罢了。
原文：
It's with good reason that China has recently been referred to by the New York Times as the world's "great incubator of architectural ideas": Architectural experiments are on display throughout the country, the product of a government rich with money and eager to show off. But the aesthetic boldness of contemporary Chinese buildings is increasingly matched by an attention to environmental standards. Green buildings have proved an effective way for China to earn international prestige while saving money on heating bills. But as the country's building boom continues, its commitment to green building design will be put to the test: Is it just a fad to impress foreigners, or a real bid by Beijing for environmental and economic leadership in the 21st century?
One of the most recent examples of green building design in China is the Vanke Center (seen above), a combined office, hotel, and exhibition complex in Shenzhen. Designed by architect Steven Holl, the building received a "platinum" rating (the highest) by LEED, the internationally recognized building certification system.
The Vanke Center, made with an abundance of renewable and recyclable materials like bamboo, is packed with sustainable design features, including rooftop solar panels providing up to 15 percent of the office's electricity, recycling of water, and plenty of public green space.
China's explicit commitment to green building principles began several years into the nationwide building boom. Back in 2004, when ground broke in Beijing on the China Central Television (CCTV) tower, national emphasis was on "eye-catching and unorthodox signature projects." Stunning as it is to look at -- the building is a 34-story loop of six independent horizontal and vertical sections -- it doesn't meet any international green building standards.
By the time the 2008 Beijing Olympics rolled around, green building was a national priority -- ostensibly, at least. Case in point: the National Stadium, also known as the Bird's Nest, which was hailed by some as an "uber-green machine," thanks to features like a rainwater collection system, a translucent roof filtering sunlight to the grass below, a natural ventilation system, and a series of rooftop "cushions" that helped to weatherproof and waterproof the stadium. However, critics pointed to the enormous amount of steel used to build and decorate the now mostly vacant $450 million building as extremely wasteful. One architectural critic told the American Society of Landscape Architects that the building never had a chance of being sustainable because it "cost so much to build and consumed so much steel and energy.... Ten times or even 20 times as much needed to build a similar kind of venue, or sport facility."
The 160-acre Olympic Village was touted as the "world's largest green building complex," featuring solar and green roofs and a heat exchange system that collects and reuses rainwater for heating and cooling. According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, the village's 42 buildings were over 50 percent more energy-efficient than typical Beijing residential buildings. The village received the first LEED gold certification outside the United States and was the largest LEED-certified project at the time of its completion.
The 2008 Olympics National Aquatics Center completes the triad of green Olympic building projects. Also known as the "Watercube," the design is a box with an organic "bubble" exterior designed to trap solar energy to heat the pool and the building's interior.
Designed by the same architect as Vanke, Beijing's 2-million-square-foot Linked Hybrid residential towers are among the most famous of China's new green buildings. Completed in 2009, the towers are connected by a pattern of bridges, providing, according to one review, "an antidote to the soulless gated communities that are choking the life out of many Asian cities." The buildings feature cafes, a swimming pool, a wastewater recycling plant, and one of the largest geothermal systems in the world. "We are making the largest green total community in the history of Beijing," architect Steven Holl said. "This is an example for many kinds of urban work."
Foreign companies investing in China are also jumping on the environmental bandwagon. The Nokia China Campus in Beijing is the first regional headquarters built by the Finnish cell-phone company that meets the highest international green building standards. Its double-skin glass facade reduces energy use by an estimated 15 percent and was built using 27 percent local materials.
In 2006, on the campus of Beijing's prestigious Tsinghua University, a team of Italian engineers, architects, and environmental researchers designed and built the Sino-Italian Ecological and Energy-Efficient Building (SIEEB, for short). As a research center for environmental research built using the latest green technology, the building is an ideal marriage of form and content.
The Chinese government hopes that its high-profile green building will help diminish its reputation for environmental disregard. The Canton Tower in Guangzhou was built for the opening of the 16th annual Asian Games in November 2010. The tower features integrated photovoltaics, the latest in solar panel technology.
One of the highlights of the 2010 World Expo in Shanghai was the China Pavilion, also known as the Oriental Crown. Designed by He Jingtang, the director of the Architectural Academy of the South China University of Technology, the structure's exterior offers a temperature buffer zone and natural ventilation for the interior, and the pavilion's inverted shape acts as shading for the entire building as well as the courtyard below. The roof includes eco-friendly landscaping and harvests rainwater.
A truck drives past the site of an "eco-city" under construction in Tianjin, in northeastern China. The challenge for China will be to make green building design not only a feature of architectural prestige projects in major cities, but a standard element of the massive building boom under way throughout the country.
BEIJING — Among the most important high-tech endeavors at Shanghai Jiaotong University -- widely considered to be China's No. 2 engineering school -- is a cavernous showroom that resembles nothing so much as a futuristic Home Depot.
Two years ago, the university, nestled in a leafy suburb of Shanghai, received a multi-million dollar government grant to build a working model of residential "green building" technologies for China -- in effect, a museum dedicated to heat-absorbing window panes and rooftop solar cells that Chinese architects and developers can use when designing the energy efficient mega-blocks and villas of the future.
Professor Wang Ruzhu, director of the Institute of Refrigeration and Cryogenics and the Research Center of Solar Energy at Shanghai Jiaotong, gave me a tour on a recent sunny afternoon. It was a glimpse at the ultra-efficient, high-tech fashion in which the people of China will soon be living. Or at least, a glimpse of the dream of future green living -- as with so much else in China, the vision is endlessly enticing, but how successfully it moves out of the showroom remains to be seen.
In China, where fully half the world's new buildings are erected each year, the reason the government is interested in squeezing energy demand is simple. It's not just altruism or global ecological goodwill. As China continues to urbanize at a breakneck pace, moving a projected 350 million people from rural areas into cities over the next 20 years and erecting the floor-space equivalent of two New York Cities every year, its energy demand is rising worryingly quickly -- up 12 percent from just last year. Feeding that demand is not easy, and many cities in China continue to experience rolling brownouts (the situation was exACerbated during this summer's drought, when diminished river flows shrunk the available energy from hydropower).
Beijing knows there's no silver bullet. That's why it's investing heavily in both dirty coal and clean energy and, increasingly, in energy efficiency. The operation of buildings in China -- which includes heating, air-conditioning, and electricity -- accounts for 25 to 27 percent of the country's annual energy consumption, according to the Natural Resources Defense Council, which maintains an office in Beijing. China's own Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (MOHURD) projects that energy use associated with buildings will rise 70 percent by 2020, unless greener building practices become the norm. That's why Beijing's most recent five-year plan takes a page from Jimmy Carter's enthusiasm for low thermostat levels and his infamous "put on a sweater!" campaign (heck, no one has to worry about winning re-election here).
More specifically, China's five-year plan shows a special interest in the concept of building energy use and "green buildings," a notion born in America during the 1970s oil embargo. On June 15, MOHURD's director of building energy-efficiency, Hao Bin, announced that Beijing is finalizing a national energy-labeling system for new building construction. As he told conference attendees at the Global Green Building Conference in Shanghai, the government is also evaluating plans to subsidize certain kinds of energy-efficient building materials. Already it's funding a number of research and demonstration projects.
Wang, the professor in Shanghai, has been among the many beneficiaries of Beijing's newfound interest. Now in his 50s, he has been at Shanghai Jiaotong since he arrived as a student there in 1980. His life has changed dramatically with the times. Standing in front of the university's iconic red gate, he recounts the downtown dorms he moved into as an undergraduate, with six or eight boys to a room and no amenities to speak of. Now he lives on the new university campus, a sprawling suburban outpost of green lawns and fishponds in Shanghai's bucolic Xuhui district, where his driver ferries him between appointments. Still a bit astonished by his own good luck and timing, he takes great pleasure in the Jetsons-esque task of imagining how future Chinese families should live, although he warns me that "the most important details" -- like better insulation -- are not necessarily the most exciting developments to look at.
The final green-tech showroom is set to open to the public in late summer, but Wang agreed to give me a quick preview. From the outside, the three-story glass-windowed building with an additional diagonal roof jutting up looked rather like a giant grand piano. The interior was still under construction: We stepped past wires strewn on the floor, over layers of thick dust, and around assorted pre-fabricated parts still in shrink-wrap. Standing next to a large ground-floor window, Wang pointed outside to what appeared to be a large mound of dirt. Buried beneath was a geothermal heat pump, which, he says, can draw heat from the earth in winter and release it in the summer, decreasing the need to run a boiler and air-conditioning.
Upstairs, he led me to two showrooms designed to look like the apartments of an average Chinese household: Exactly 50 square meters (538 square feet) and 70 square meters (753 square feet). The 70 square meter dwelling showcased a small living room with a TV and Ikea-like shelving built into a wall, a small bedroom with a plush bed that nearly filled the room, a long and narrow kitchen, and a bathroom. As we were leaving, he pointed to a small computer panel by the door, which, he explained, could be programmed to automatically turn off non-essential appliances when the family is not home.
Finally, we walked onto the roof, with its view of the adjacent research park, where Microsoft and other foreign technology companies have recently opened labs. Here, Wang's team had mounted three rows of different types of solar panels.
I asked Wang how likely it is that green models such as his will in fact be deployed across China. After all, in recent years foreign architects have built a number of expensive, eye-catching green buildings in China -- from Steven Holl and Li Hu's Linked Hybrid in northern Beijing to the Sino-Italian Ecological and Energy-Efficient Building on the campus of Tsinghua University -- but nothing that caught on with either government planners or local architects.
"That's a good question," he said. "It's a very good question, but it's very hard to answer. Of course, the unusual foreign designs would not be practical."
Later, I asked the same question of Tom McCawley, an American green-tech investment consultant in Shanghai whose clients have included the city of Urumqi and Disney Shanghai. He seconded the notion that foreign designers often have trouble designing more than one-off projects in China. "A lot of people with green ideas they want to bring to China don't understand how decisions are actually made [here]," he admitted. But more to the point, he said that the biggest challenges for China comes down to price (green materials may cost 10 percent more) and quality control.
Erecting energy-efficient buildings demands a level of precision in both the design phase and the construction phase that's extremely hard to manage in bulk -- especially when much of the migrant labor force actually hammering in the nails is new to the industry and rather low-skilled. "To do green buildings requires a lot of integration and communication between the disciplines. That's difficult to do even in the United States, where it's done primarily by experienced teams," he says. "China is laying down 2 billion square meters in building space every year. Think about trying to set up the infrastructure to inspect quality when you build so much."
McCawley shared a cautionary tale about a developer in the western city of Chengdu who was trying to install a new air-conditioning technology that can reduce energy use by as much as 25 percent. It works by placing vents in the floor, rather than the ceiling (generally, a lot of energy is wasted cooling the air near the ceiling that no one occupies). But it wasn't working because the building's sealing wasn't done properly. "You don't have technical construction sophistication. Nothing is built in a very straight line in China -- no roof is true; nothing is level. Sometimes even in your rooms, you don't have 90 degree angles."
Jin Ruidong, green buildings project director at the Natural Resources Defense Council, works closely in advising the Chinese government. As a native of the western megacity of Chongqing -- China's fastest-growing urban area, where buildings go up practically overnight as the city absorbs 1 million new residents each year -- he's well aware of the problems caused by rapid-fire development. "The reality is that green-building construction takes some care, and a lot of developers are not familiar with proper insulation, etc. They make mistakes. And then it is expensive and takes time to correct mistakes," he says. "Generally speaking, green buildings don't have to be much more expensive than other buildings. But frequent troubles in construction gives you that perception."
And therein lies the rub. In theory, China has the opportunity to leapfrog many of the environmental mistakes of the West as it builds new cities virtually from scratch. But the need for speed means that much of what's in fact built is barely serviceable, rundown after five years. Even inside the new main departure hall of Shanghai's Hongqiao Airport, Terminal 2, a row of buckets is arranged along the floor at precise intervals to catch rainwater dripping from the ceiling.
With green buildings, the opportunity for nationwide energy savings is immense -- but so is the required overhaul in construction practices to make it happen. Furnishing the high-tech showroom, alas, is the easy part.
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发表于 2011-8-8 14:48
