達賴喇嘛的陰影 (上卷)

ltbriar

達賴喇嘛的陰影 (上卷)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            Authors' Declaration:“Victor and Victoria Trimondi are independent German writers and cultural philosophers. Their manifold literary work includes also critical books and articles which deal mainly with fundamentalist streams in traditional religions and with ideologies of the extreme right. They have done extensive critical researches concerning Christian, Islamic and Jewish fundamentalism,the relationship of Zen-Buddhism and Fascism, the religious right in India(Hindutva), the interest of national-socialist and fascist intellectuals and politicians in eastern religions. Their internationally discussed book‘The Shadow of the Dalai Lama’ is written from a humanistic, democratic and liberal viewpoint. The study does not only concern the Dalai Lama but the whole dogmatic system of Lamaism as such. One of the main intentions of the two cultural philosophers is, to show that human rights can be extremely violated by repressive religious ideologies,practices and institutions. Victor and Victoria Trimondi speak against every form of human rights violation and every form of aggressive nationalism be it in the East or in the West, in the People's Republic  of China or in the United States of  America or in the Islamic world. They will contribute with their writings to an open,honest but also critical dialogue between the different cultures of our global family, to find answers and ways for the future of humanity in peace, harmony and mutual respect. The authors do not speak Chinese, so the correctness of the translation lies in the responsibility of the translator. To give the reader the possibility to compare the two versions, the English original will always be published together with the Chinese translation. The translation shall not be reproduced in any form without prior written approval of the authors.”

作者聲明: (Victor & Victoria) Trimondi 先生夫人為德國獨立作者, 也是文化哲學家。他們眾多文學著作中也包括對傳統宗教基要主義思潮及極右意識形態的批評著作及文章。他們曾對基督教, 伊斯蘭教及猶太教基本主義, 禪宗佛教與法西斯的關係, 印度(現代印度民族主義)的宗教信仰權利, 東方宗教信仰內民族社會主義者, 法西斯知識份子及政治人物等人之利益各方面作廣泛的批判研究。他們在國際上廣為評論的「達賴喇嘛的陰影」一書是從人道, 民主, 自由的角度著墨的。研究並不單純討論達賴喇嘛個人, 而是藏傳佛教的整個教條體系。兩位文化哲學家的其中最大目的是要顯示抑制的宗教意識形態, 行為及教會組織是可以很極端地侵犯人權。不管是在東方或是西方社會, 在中國或是在美國或是伊斯蘭社會, Trimondi 先生夫人對所有侵犯人權及所有極端民族主義都是批判反對的。他們願意把著作提供給全球不同文化的大家庭作開放, 誠實而深刻批評的交流對話, 以求為人類未來和平和諧, 互相尊重相處找到答案與方法。兩位作者不懂中文, 故此譯者對文的準確性負責。為了使讀者能對照兩種文本, 英文及中譯本必須同時並列刊登。譯本在未有作者書面授權前, 不能以任何形式複製或轉載。

【原文連接】http://www.iivs.de/~iivs01311/SDLE/Contents.htm


(譯註: 這是一對德國學者夫婦 Victor & Victoria Trimondi
寫的學術研究, 分成上下兩部, 也很難翻譯, 我只能竭盡所能。
對藏文詞彙或佛學名詞有異議處, 請大家來信通知, 謝謝.
誠蒙他們許可, 容許我翻譯。但由於他們最終是希望找到出版商出版成書的, 故而除了Anti-CNN本身不許轉載
這譯文也不能在原作者許可前, 作任何方式, 任何商業的複製或任何形式流傳, 否則將影響譯者的授權許可
希望大家能合作。中國向來被西方垢病說不尊重知識版權, 我希望版友們認真對待這問題, 不要做讓國家
被人抓辮子笑話的事, 謝謝合作。
同時, 由於文章太長, 故此, 只作原文連接, 網址如上, 而且(下卷)將另外開欄貼出, 敬請留意

Translator's Remarks: This is a book on research study written by German scholar couple Victor & Victoria Trimondi,
consisting of 2 parts, which is a very difficult piece and I can only try my best.
Should there be any difference in Tibetan vocabularies or Buddhist terms, please send me a message, much appreciated!

I am most honored to have the authors' permission to translate their work. However, as their ultimate objective is to
have their work properly published in prints, so on top of Anti-CNN's restriction for copy and forwarding,
the translation shall not be reproduced in any form and/or for any commercial purposes WITHOUT PRIOR WRITTEN APPROVAL
OF THE AUTHORS, or it may terminate the translation rights.
Please kindly cooperate, for I would certainly not want China be blamed for infringement of intellectual property
because of my translation. Your strict observance is appreciated.


[ 本帖最后由 ltbriar 于 2008-9-8 12:12 编辑 ]

ltbriar

http://www.iivs.de/~iivs01311/SDLE/Introduction.htm
The Shadow of the Dalai Lama – Introduction
© Victor & Victoria Trimondi

INTRODUCTION
Light and Shadow

For centuries after Buddha had died,
his shadow was still visible in a cave
a dreadful, spine-chilling shadow.
God is dead: but man being the way
he is for centuries to come there
will be caves in which his shadow is shown
and we, we must also triumph over his shadow.
Friedrich Nietzsche

The practice and philosophy of Buddhism has spread so rapidly throughout the Western world in the past 30 years and has so often been a topic in the media that by now anybody who is interested in cultural affairs has formed some sort of concept of Buddhism.  In the conventional “Western” notion of Buddhism, the teachings of Buddha Gautama are regarded as a positive Eastern countermodel to the decadent civilization and culture of the West: where the Western world has introduced war and exploitation into world history, Buddhism stands for peace and freedom; whilst Western rationalism is destructive of life and  the environment, the Eastern teachings of wisdom preserve and safeguard them. The meditation, compassion, composure, understanding, nonviolence, modesty, and spirituality of Asia stand in contrast to the actionism, egomania, unrest, indoctrination, violence, arrogance, and materialism of Europe and  North America. Ex oriente lux—“light comes from the East”; in occidente nox—“darkness prevails in the West”.

We regard this juxtaposition of the Eastern and Western hemispheres as not just the “business” of naive believers and zealous Tibetan lamas. On the contrary, this comparison of values has become distributed among Western intelligentsia as a popular philosophical speculation in which they flirt with their own demise. But the cream of Hollywood also gladly and openly confess their allegiance to the teachings of Buddhism (or what they understand these to be), especially when these come from the mouths of Tibetan lamas. “Tibet is looming larger than ever on the show business map,” the Herald Tribune wrote in 1997. “Tibet is going to enter the Western popular culture as something can only when Hollywood does the entertainment injection into the world system. Let’s remember that Hollywood is the most powerful force in the world,  besides the US military” (Herald Tribune, March 20, 1997, pp. 1, 6). Orville Schell, who is working on a book on Tibet and the West, sees the Dalai Lama’s “Hollywood connection” as a substitute for the non-existent diplomatic corps that could represent the interests of the exiled Tibetan hierarch: “Since he [the Dalai Lama] doesn’t have embassies, and he has no political power, he has to seek other kinds. Hollywood is a kind of country in his own, and he’s established a kind of embassy there.” (Newsweek, May 19, 1997, p. 24).

In Buddhism more and more show-business celebrities believe they have discovered a message of salvation that can at last bring the world peace and tranquility. In connection with his most recent film about the young Dalai Lama (Kundun), the director Martin Scorsese, more known for the violence of his films, emotionally declared: “Violence is not the answer, it doesn’t work any more. We are at the end of the worst century in which the greatest atrocities in the history of the world have occurred ... The nature of  human beings must change. We must cultivate love and compassion” (Focus 46/1997, p. 168; retranslation). The karate hero Steven Segal, who believes himself to be the reincarnation of a Tibetan lama, tells us, “I have been a Buddhist for   twenty years and since then have lived in harmony with myself and the world” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p. 24; retranslation). For actor Richard Gere, one of the closest Western confidants of the Dalai Lama, the “fine irony of Buddhism, which signifies the only way to true happiness, is our own pleasure to offer to each and all” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p. 25; retranslation). Helmut Thoma, former head of the private German television company RTL, is no less positive about this Eastern religion: “Buddhists treat each other in a friendly, well-meaning and compassionate way. They see no difference between their own suffering and that of others. I admire that” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p. 24). Actress Christine Kaufmann has also enthused, “In Buddhism the maxim is: enjoy the phases of happiness for these are transitory” (Bunte, November 6, 1997, p. 21). Sharon Stone, Uma Thurman, Tina Turner, Patty Smith, Meg Ryan, Doris Dörrie, and Shirley MacLaine are just some of the film stars and singers who follow the teachings of Buddha Gautama.

The press is no less euphoric. The German magazine Bunte has praised the teachings from the East as the “ideal religion of our day”: Buddhism has no moral teachings, enjoins us to happiness, supports winners, has in contrast to other religions an unblemished past ("no skeletons in the closet”),worships nature as a cathedral, makes women beautiful, promotes sensuousness, promises eternal youth, creates paradise on earth, reduces stress and body weight (Bunte, November 6, 1997, pp. 20ff.).

What has already become the myth of the “Buddhization of the West” is the work of many. Monks, scholars, enthusiastic followers, generous sponsors, occultists, hippies, and all sorts of “Eastern trippers” have worked on it. But towering above them all, just as the Himalayas surpass all other peaks on the planet, is His Holiness Tenzin Gyatso the Fourteenth Dalai Lama. Timeless,  gigantic, respectful, tolerant, patient, modest, simple, full of humor, warm, gentle, lithe, earthy, harmonious, transparent, pure, and always smiling and laughing — this is how the Kundun  (the Tibetan word means “presence” or “living Buddha”) is now known to all. There is no positive human characteristic which has not at one time or another been applied to the Dalai Lama. For many of the planet’s inhabitants, even if they are non-Buddhists, he represents the most respectable living individual of our epoch.

Many believe they have discovered in the straightforward personality of this Buddhist monk all the rare qualities of a gracious and trustworthy character that we seek in vain among our Western politicians and church leaders. In a world full of evil, materialism, and corruption he represents goodwill, the realm of the spirit, and the lotus blossom of purity; amidst the maelstrom of trivialities and confusion he stands for meaning, calm, and stability; in the competitive struggle of modern capitalism and in an age where reports of catastrophes are constant he is the guarantor of justice and a clear and unshaken will; from the thick of the battle of cultures and peoples he emerges as the apostle of peace; amidst a global outbreak of religious fanaticism he preaches tolerance and nonviolence.

His followers worship him as a deity, a “living Buddha” (Kundun), and call him their “divine king”. Not even the Catholic popes or medieval emperors ever claimed such a high spiritual position — they continued to bow down before the “Lord of Lords” (God) as his supreme servants. The Dalai Lama, however –according to Tibetan doctrine at least — himself appears and acts as the “Highest”. In him is revealed the mystic figure of ADI BUDDHA (the Supreme Buddha); he is a religious ideal in flesh and blood. In some circles, enormous hopes are placed in the Kundun as the new Redeemer himself.  Not just Tibetans and Mongolians, many Taiwan Chinese and Westerners also see him as a latterday Messiah. [1]

However human the monk from Dharamsala (India) may appear, his person is surrounded by the most occult speculations. Many who have met him believe they have encountered the supernatural. In the case of the “divine king” who has descended to mankind from the roof of the world, that which was denied Moses—namely, to glimpse the countenance of God (Yahweh)—has become possible for pious Buddhists; and unlike Yahweh this countenance shows no wrath, but smiles graciously and warmly instead.

The esoteric pathos in the characterization of the Dalai Lama has long since transcended the boundaries of Buddhist insider groups. It is the famous show business personalities and even articles in the “respectable” Western press who now express the mystic flair of the Kundun in weighty exclamations: “The fascination is the search for the third eye”, Melissa Mathison, scriptwriter for Martin Scorsese’s film, Kundun, writes in the Herald Tribune. “Americans are hoping for some sort of magical door into the mystical, thinking that there’s some mysterious reason for things, a cosmic explanation. Tibet offers the most extravagant expression of the mystical, and when people meet His Holiness, you can see on their faces that they’re hoping to get this hit that will transcend their lives, take them someplace else” (Herald Tribune, March 20, 1997).

Nevertheless — and this is another magical fairytale — the divine king’s omnipotent role combines well with the monastic modesty and simplicity he exhibits. It is precisely this fascinating combination of the supreme (“divine king”) and the almighty with the lowliest (“mendicant”) and weakest that makes the Dalai Lama so appealing for many — clear, understandable words, a gracious smile, a simple robe, plain sandals, and behind all this the omnipotence of the divine. With his constantly repeated statement — “I ... see myself first as a man and a Tibetan who has made the decision to become a Buddhist monk” — His Holiness has conquered the hearts of the West (Dalai Lama XIV, 1993a, p. 7). We can believe in such a person, we can find refuge in him, from him we learn about the wisdom of life and death. [2]


A similar reverse effect is found in another of the Kundun’s favorite sayings, that the institution of the Dalai Lama could become superfluous in the future. “Perhaps it would really be good if I were the last!” (Levenson, 1990, p. 366). Such admissions of his own superfluity bring tears to people’s eyes and are only surpassed by the prognosis of the “divine king” that in his next life he will probably be reincarnated as an insect in order to help this lower form of life as an “insect messiah”. In the wake of such heartrending prophecies no-one would wish for anything more than that the institution of the Dalai Lama might last for ever.

The political impotence of the country the hierarch had to flee has a similarly powerful and disturbing effect. The image of the innocent, peaceful, spiritual, defenseless, and tiny Tibet, suppressed and humiliated by the merciless, inhumane, and materialistic Chinese giant has elevated the “Land of Snows” and its monastic king to the status of a worldwide symbol of “pacifist resistance”. The more Tibet and its “ecclesiastical king” are threatened, the more his spiritual authority increases and the more the Kundun becomes an international moral authority. He has succeeded in the impossible task of drawing strength from his weakness.

The numerous speeches of the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, his interviews, statements, writings, biographies, books, and his countless introductions and forewords to the texts of others deal almost exclusively with topics like compassion, kindness, sincerity, love, nonviolence, human rights, ecological visions, professions of democracy, religious tolerance, inner and outer spirituality, the blessings of science, world peace, and so on. It would take a true villain to not agree totally with what he has said and written. Training consciousness, achieving spiritual peace, cultivating inner contentment, fostering satisfaction, practicing awareness, eliminating egoism, helping others — what responsible person could fail to identify with this? Who doesn’t long for flawless love, clear intellect, generosity, and enlightenment?

Within Western civilization, the Dalai Lama appears as the purest light. He represents — according to former President Jimmy Carter — a new type of world leader, who has placed the principles of peace and compassion at the center of his politics, and who, with his kind and winning nature, has shown us all how the hardest blows of fate can be borne with perseverance and patience. By now he symbolizes human dignity and global responsibility for millions. Up until very recently hardly anyone, with the exception of his archenemies, the Chinese communists, has dared to criticize this impotent/omnipotent luminary. But then, out of the blue in 1996, dark clouds began to gather over the bright aura of the “living Buddha”.

Charges, accusations, suspicions and incriminations began to appear in the media. At first on the Internet, then in isolated press reports, and finally in television programs (see Panorama on ARD [Germany], November 20, 1997 and 10 vor 10 on SF1 [Switzerland], January 5-8, 1998). At the same time as the Hollywood stars were erecting a media altar for their Tibetan god, the public attacks on the Dalai Lama were becoming more frequent. Even for a mundane politician the catalogue of accusations would have been embarrassing, but for a divine king they were horrendous. And on this occasion the attacks came not from the Chinese camp but from within his own ranks.

The following serious charges are leveled in an open letter to the Kundun supposedly written by Tibetans in exile which criticizes the “despotism” of the hierarch: “The cause [of the despotism] is the invisible disease which is still there and which develops immediately if met with various conditions. And what is this disease? It is your clinging to your own power. It is a fact that even at that time if someone would have used democracy on you, you would not have been able to accept it. ... Your Holiness, you wish to be a great leader, but you do not know that in order to fulfill the wish, a ‘political Bodhisattva vow’ is required. So you entered instead the wrong ‘political path of accumulation’ (tsog lam) and that has lead you on a continuously wrong path. You believed that in order to be a greater leader you had to secure your own position first of all, and whenever any opposition against you arose you had to defend yourself, and this has become contagious. ... Moreover, to challenge lamas you have used religion for your own aim. To that purpose you had to develop the Tibetan people’s blind faith. ... For instance, you started the politics of public Kalachakra initiations. [3] Normally the Kalachakra initiation is not given in public. Then you started to use it continuously in a big way for your politics. The result is that now the Tibetan people have returned to exactly the same muddy and dirty mixing of politics and religion of lamas which you yourself had so precisely criticized in earlier times. ... You have made the Tibetans into donkeys. You can force them to go here and there as you like. In your words you always say that you want to be Ghandi but in your action you are like a religious fundamentalist who uses religious faith for political purposes. Your image is the Dalai Lama, your mouth is Mahatma Ghandi and your heart is like that of a religious dictator. You are a deceiver and it is very sad that on the top of the suffering that they already have the Tibetan people have a leader like you. Tibetans have become fanatics. They say that the Dalai Lama is more important than the principle of Tibet. ... Please, if you feel like being like Gandhi, do not turn the Tibetan situation in the church dominated style of 17th century Europe” (Sam, May 27, 1997 - Newsgroup 16).

The list of accusations goes on and on. Here we present some of the charges raised against the Kundun since 1997 which we treat in more detail in this study: association with the Japanese “poison gas guru” Shoko Asahara (the “Asahara affair”); violent suppression of the free expression of religion within his own ranks (the “Shugden affair”); the splitting of the other Buddhist sects (the “Karmapa affair”); frequent sexual abuse of women by Tibetan lamas (“Sogyal Rinpoche and June Campbell affairs”);intolerance towards homosexuals; involvement in a ritual murder (the events of February 4, 1997); links to National Socialism (the “Heinrich Harrer affair”); nepotism (the “Yabshi affair”); selling out his own country to the Chinese(renunciation of Tibetan sovereignty); political lies; rewriting history; and much more. Overnight the god has become a demon. [4]

And all of a sudden Westerners are beginning to ask themselves whether the king of light from the Himalayas might not have a monstrous shadow. What we mean by the Dalai Lama’s “shadow” is the possibility of a dark, murky, and “dirty” side to both his personality and politicoreligious office in contrast to the pure and brilliant figure he cuts as the “greatest living hero of peace in our century” in the captivated awareness of millions.

For most people who have come to know him personally or via the media, such nocturnal dimensions to His Holiness are unimaginable. The possibility would not even occur to them, since the Kundun has grasped how to effectively conceal the threatening and demonic aspects of Tibetan Buddhism and the many dark chapters in the history of Tibet. Up until 1996 he had succeeded –the poorly grounded Chinese critique aside — in playing the shining hero on the world stage.

Plato’s cave

The shadow is the “other side”of a person, his“hidden face”, the shadows are his “occult depths”. Psychoanalysis teaches us that there are four ways of dealing with our shadow: we can deny it, suppress it, project it onto other people, or integrate it.

But the topic of the shadow does not just have a psychological dimension; ever since Plato’s famous analogy of the cave it has become one of the favorite motifs of Western philosophy. In his Politeia (The State), Plato tells of an“unenlightened”people who inhabit a cave with their backs to the entrance. Outside shines the light of eternal and true reality, but as the people have turned their backs to it, all they see are the shadows of reality which flit sketchily across the walls of the cave before their eyes. Their human attentiveness is magically captivated by this shadowy world and they thus perceive only dreams and illusions, never higher reality itself. Should a cave dweller one day manage to escape this dusky dwelling, he would recognize that he had been living in a world of illusions.

This parable was adapted by Friedrich Nietzsche in Aphorism 108 of his Fröhliche Wissenschaft [The Gay Science] and — of interest here — linked to the figure of Buddha: “For centuries after Buddha had died,”Nietzsche wrote,“his shadow was still visible in a cave — a dreadful, spine-chilling shadow. God is dead: but man being the way he is, for centuries to come there will be caves in which his shadow is shown — and we — we must also triumph over his shadow”. [5]  

[ 本帖最后由 ltbriar 于 2008-9-8 11:44 编辑 ]

ltbriar

{Continued]
This aphorism encourages us to speculate about the Dalai Lama. He is, after all, worshipped as “God”or as a“living Buddha” (Kundun), as a supreme enlightened being. But, we could argue with Nietzsche, the true Buddha (“God”) is dead. Does this make the figure of the Dalai Lama nothing but a shadow? Are pseudo-dogmas, pseudo-rituals, and pseudo-mysteries all that remain of the original Buddhism? Did the historical Buddha Shakyamuni leave us with his “dreadful shadow” (the Dalai Lama) and have we been challenged to liberate ourselves from him? However, we could also speculate as to whether people perceive only the Dalai Lama’s silhouette since they still live in the cave of an unenlightened consciousness. If they were to leave this world of illusion, they might experience the Kundun as the supreme luminary and Supreme Buddha (ADI BUDDHA).

In our study of the Dalai Lama we offer concrete answers to these and similar metaphysical questions. To do this, however, we must lead our readers into (Nietzsche’s) cave, where the “dreadful shadow” of the Kundun (a“living Buddha”) appears on the wall. Up until now this cave has been closed to the public and could not be entered by the uninitiated.

Incidentally, every Tibetan temple possesses such an eerie room of shadows. Beside the various sacred chambers in which smiling Buddha statues emit peace and composure there are secret rooms known as gokhangs which can only be entered by a chosen few. In the dim light of flickering, half-drowned butter lamps, surrounded by rusty weapons, stuffed animals, and mummified body parts, the Tibetan terror gods reside in the gokhang. Here, the inhabitants of a violent and monstrous realm of darkness are assembled. In a figurative sense the gokhang symbolizes the dark ritualism of Lamaism and Tibet’s hidden history of violence. In order to truly get to know the Dalai Lama (the “living Buddha”) we must first descend into the “cave” (the gokhang) and there conduct a speleology of his religion.

“Realpolitik” and the “Politics of Symbols”

Our study is divided into two parts. The first contain a depiction and critique of the religious foundations of Tibetan (“Tantric”) Buddhism and is entitled Ritual as Politics. The second part (Politics as Ritual) examines the power politics of the Kundun (Dalai Lama) and its historical preconditions. The relationship between political power and religion is thus central to our book.
  
  In ancient societies (like that of Tibet), everything that happens in the everyday world — from acts of nature to major political events to quotidian occurrences — is the expression of transcendent powers and forces working behind the scenes. Mortals do not determine their own fates; rather they are instruments in the hands of “gods” and “demons”. If we wish to gain any understanding at all of the Dalai Lama’s “secular” politics, it must be derived from this atavistic perspective which permeates the traditional cultural legacy of Tibetan Buddhism. For the mysteries that he administers (in which the “gods” make their appearances) form the foundations of his political vision and decision making. State and religion, ritual and politics are inseparable for him.
  
  What, however, distinguishes a “politics of symbols” from “realpolitik”? Both are concerned with power, but the methods for achieving and maintaining power differ. In realpolitik we are dealing with facts that are both caused and manipulated by people. Here the protagonists are politicians, generals, CEOs, leaders of opinion, cultural luminaries, etc. The methods through which power is exercised include force, war, revolution, legal systems, money, rhetoric, propaganda, public discussions, and bribery.
  
  In the symbolic political world, however, we encounter “supernatural” energy fields, the “gods” and “demons”. The secular protagonists in events are still human beings such as ecclesiastical dignitaries, priests, magicians, gurus, yogis, and shamans. But they all see themselves as servants of some type of superior divine will, or, transcending their humanity they themselves become “gods”, as in the case of the Dalai Lama. His exercise of power thus not only involves worldly techniques but also the manipulation of symbols in rituals and magic. For him, symbolic images and ritual acts are not simply signs or aesthetic acts but rather instruments with which to activate the gods and to influence people’s awareness. His political reality is determined by a “metaphysical detour” via the mysteries. [6]
  
  This interweaving of historical and symbolic events leads to the seemingly fantastic metapolitics of the Tibetans. Lamaism believes it can influence the course of history not just in   Tibet   but for the entire planet through its system of rituals and invocations, through magic practices and concentration exercises. The result is an atavistic mix of magic and politics. Rather than being determined by parliament and the Tibetan government in exile, political decisions are made by oracles and the supernatural beings acting through them. It is no longer parties with differing programs and leaders who face off in the political arena, but rather distinct and antagonistic oracle gods.
  
  Above all it is in the individual of the Dalai Lama that the entire wordly and spiritual/magic potential of the Tibetan world view is concentrated. According to tradition he is a sacred king. All his deeds, however much they are perceived in terms of practical politics by his surroundings, are thus profoundly linked to the Tibetan mysteries.
  
  The latter have always been shrouded in secrecy. The uninitiated have no right to participate or learn about them. Nevertheless, in recent years much information about the Tibetan cults (recorded in the so-called tantra texts and their commentaries) has been published and translated into European languages. The world that opens itself here to Western awareness appears equally fantastic and fascinating. This world is a combination of theatrical pomp, medieval magic, sacred sexuality, relentless asceticism, supreme deification and the basest abuse of women, murderous crimes, maximum ethical demands, the appearance of gods and demons, mystical ecstasy, and cold hard logic all in one powerful, paradoxical performance.
  
Note on the cited literature:
  The original documents which we cite are without exception European-language translations from Sanskrit, Tibetan or Chinese, or are drawn from Western sources. By now, so many relevant texts have been translated that they provide an adequate scholarly basis for a culturally critical examination of Tibetan Buddhism without the need to refer to documents in the original language. For our study , the Kalachakra Tantra is central. This has not been translated in its entirety, aside from an extremely problematical handwritten manuscript by the German Tibetoligist, Albert Grünwedel, which can be found in the Bavarian State Library in   Munich  . Important parts of the Sri Kalachakra have been translated into English by John Roland Newman, along with a famous commentary on these parts by Pundarika known as the Vimalaphraba. (  John Ronald Newman - The outer wheel of time: Vajrayana buddhist cosmology in the Kalacakra Tantra – Vimalaprabhā - nāmamūlatantrānusāriņī-dvādaśasāhasrikālagukālacakratantrarājaţīkā )   Madison   1987)
  
  The Sri Kalachakra (Laghukalachakratantra) is supposed to be the abridgement of a far more comprehensive original text by the name of Sekoddesha. The complete text has been lost — but some important passages from it have been preserved and have been commented upon by the renowned scholar Naropa (10th century). An Italian translation of the commentary by Ranieri Gnoli and Giacomella Orofino is available. Further to this, we have studied every other work on the Kalachakra Tantra which we have been able to find in a Western language. We were thuis in a position to be able to adequately reconstruct the contents of the “Time Tantra” from the numerous translated commentaries and sources for a cultural historical (and not a philological) assessment of the tantra. This extensive literature is listed at the end of the book. In order to make the intentions and methods of this religious system comprehensible for a Western audience, a comparision with other tantras and with parallels in European culture is of greater importance than a meticulous linguistic knowledge of every line in the Sanskrit or Tibetan original.
  
  In the interests of readability, we have transliterated Tibetan and Sanskrit names without diacritical marks and in this have primarily oriented ourselves to Anglo-Saxon usages.
   

Footnotes:
[1] In the opinion of the Tibet researcher, Peter Bishop, the head of the Lamaist “church” satisfies
a “reawakened
appreciation of the Divine Father” for many people from the West (Bishop 1993, p. 130). For Bishop, His Holiness stands out as a fatherly savior figure against the insecurities and fears produced by modern society, against the criticisms levelled at monotheistic religions, and against the rubble of the decline of the European system of values.
[2] Through this contradictory effect the Dalai Lama is able to strengthen his superhuman stature with the most banal of words and deeds. Many of His Holiness’s Western visitors, for example, are amazed after an audience that a “god-king” constantly rubs his nose and scratches his head “like an ape”. Yet, writes the Tibet researcher Christiaan Klieger, “such expressions of the body natural
do not detract from the status of the Dalai Lama – far from it,
as it adds to his personal charisma. It maintains that incongruous image of a divine form in a human body” (Klieger 1991, p 79).
[3] The Kalachakra initiations are the most significant rituals which the Dalai Lama conducts, partly in public and in part in secret. By now the public events take place in the presence of hundreds of thousands. Analyses and interpretations of the Kalachakra initiations lie at the center of the current study.
[4] Up until 1996 the West needed to be divided into two factions — with the eloquent advocates of Tibetan Buddhism on the one hand, and those who were completely ignorant of the issue and remained silent on the other. In contrast, modern or “postmodern” cultural criticisms of the Buddhist teachings and critical examinations of the Tibetan clergy and the Tibetan state structure were extremely rare (completely the opposite of the case of the literature which addresses the Pope and the Catholic Church). Noncommitted and unfalsified analyses and interpretations of Buddhist or Tibetan history, in brief open and truth-seeking confrontations with the shady side of the “true faith” and its history, have to be sought out like needles in a haystack of ideological glorifications and deliberately constructed myths of history. For this reason those who attempted to discover and reveal the hidden background have had to battle to swim against a massive current of resistance based on pre-formed opinions and deliberate manipulation. This situation has changed in the period since 1996.
[5] The fact that Nietzsche’s aphorism about the shadow is number 108 offers numerolgists fertile grounds for occult speculation, as 108 is one of the most significant holy numbers in Tibetan Buddhism. Given the status of knowledge about Tibet at the time, it is hardly likely that Nietzsche chose this number deliberately.
  [6] There is nonetheless an occult correlation between “symbolic and ritual politics” and real political events. Thus the Tibetan lamas believe they are justified in subsuming the pre-existing social reality (including that of the West) into their magical world view and subjecting it to their “irrational” methods. With a for a contemporary awareness audacious seeming thought construction, they see in the processes of world history not just the work of politicians, the military, and business leaders, but declare these to be the lackeys of divine or demonic powers.[/soze]

[ 本帖最后由 ltbriar 于 2008-9-8 11:30 编辑 ]

ltbriar

【聲明】本文翻譯僅限Anti-CNN使用，不能轉載, 而且原作者保留譯稿的出版權, 故不能作任何形式的複製或出版。
【中文翻譯】

达赖喇嘛的阴影 (上卷)
© Victor & Victoria Trimondi
前言
光与影

佛陀入寂数百载,
穴中影子仍清晰可见
可怖毛骨耸然的影子
上帝己死: 但以人的德性
未来数千百年
仍有许多显示佛影的山穴
而我等, 我等也须超越他的影
弗里德里希•尼采

过去30年, 佛教信仰及哲学迅速在西方世界发展, 媒体经常以其为话题, 使人人对文化时事稍有兴趣都对佛教有某些概念。在传统“西方”对佛教的概念, 佛陀瞿昙 (译注: 传统上认为“乔达摩”或“瞿昙”（Gautama）是释迦牟尼的氏族名称，即释迦族祖先的姓氏。但这应非他的姓氏，而是依照当时印度贵族的习惯，由《梨俱吠陀》赞歌的作者仙人家族Gautama, 所取的另一个名字, http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%8A%E8%BF%A6%E7%89%9F%E5%B0%BC) 的教化是与西方堕落文明文化的正面东方对照模式: 当西方在世界史上写上战争和掠夺时, 佛教代表着和平与自由; 当西方理性主义损害生命及环境, 东方睿智教化旨在保育护卫它们。冥想, 慈悲, 定慧, 彻悟, 戒杀, 虚和及亚洲灵性, 相对着欧洲北美的行为主义, 自大狂, 浮燥不安, 灌输说教, 暴力, 狂妄, 及物质主义。Ex oriente lux — “东方之光照射”; in occidente nox — “西方黑暗弥漫”。

对我们来说, 这东西两半球并列不只是无知信众与热忱西藏喇嘛的“交易”而已。相反地, 这种价值观比照普遍作为很受欢迎的哲学潮流, 灯蛾扑火的存在于西方知识界。

但荷里活的菁英也乐于坦承他们笃信佛法(或是以他们理解那些东西), 特别是由达赖喇嘛咀里示喻的。1997年先驱论坛报写着: “西藏在演艺界的地图上隐约愈来愈大, 西藏就像当荷里活娱乐事业向世界进军一般, 将进入西方流行文化中。我们得牢记荷里活是除了美军以外世界最有势力的(先驱论坛报, 1997年3月20, 第1,6版)。夏伟(Orville Schell) 筹划写西藏与西方一书时, 把达赖喇嘛的“荷里活人脉”视为足以代表西藏流亡体制组织的非实质的外交军团的代替品: “因为他(达赖喇嘛)没有大使馆, 而他又没有政治权力, 他只能另谋他法。荷里活在某程度自成一国, 于是他就在那里成立某种形式的大使馆。”(新闻周刊,1997年5月19, 第24页)

愈来愈多演艺界名人相信他们在佛法里发现终于可以让世界重获和平宁静的救赎讯息。一向以暴力片知名的导演马丁斯科塞斯(Martin Scorsese) 最近就他执导《达赖的一生》(Kundun) 有关年轻达赖喇嘛一片, 激动声称:“暴力不是答案, 它已不管用了。我们是在世界历史出现最残暴的最糟的世纪末期。人类本性必须改变。我们必须培养爱心与慈悲”(Focus焦点摄影杂志46/1997, 第168页; 重译)。相信自己是西藏喇嘛转世的空手道英雄史蒂文•西格尔(Steven Segal)告诉我们: “我皈依成佛教徒已廿年, 从那刻开始我活在自己与世界和谐当中”(Bunte多彩周刊, 1997年, 11月6, 第24页; 重译) 。对达赖喇嘛西方知己之一的影星里察.基尔(Richard Gere)来说,  “很玄反讽之处是我们从施予中得自己的喜乐, 就是佛法强调达到真正快乐之道。” (Bunte多彩周刊, 1997年, 11月6, 第25页; 重译)。德国私人电视台RTL的前领导赫尔姆特.托马(Helmut Thoma)也同样对这东方宗教有好评: “佛教徒对彼此友善, 善心及慈悲。我欣赏他们人溺己溺, 无分彼此的精神”(Bunte多彩周刊, 1997年, 11月6, 第24页; 重译) 。女星克莉丝汀考芙曼(Christine Kaufmann)也热衷: “佛教的格言是‘享受快乐时刻因为那都是短暂无常的’(Bunte多彩周刊, 1997年, 11月6, 第21页)。(译注: 老天, 释迦也疯狂了) 莎朗.斯通, 乌玛.瑟曼, 蒂娜.特纳, 帕蒂.史密斯, 梅格.瑞恩, 多莉丝.朵利及莎莉.麦克琳只是追随佛陀教化的影星与歌星中的一部份。” 传媒界垂青程度并不逊色。德国多彩周刊Bunte称颂东方教化是“我们当代理想的宗教信仰”: 佛教没有道德说教, 命令我们要快乐, 支持胜利者, 相较其他宗教有清白的过去(译注: 直譯是“衣橱里没有骸骨” 没有家丑的意思), 尊敬大自然如庄严宝刹, 让女人美丽, 提倡知觉, 许诺永恒生命年轻, 在现世建立福地, 减少压力与体重。(Bunte多彩周刊, 1997年, 11月6, 第20页)

这已成了“西方佛教化”的神话是许多人合力而致。僧侣, 学者, 热心追随者, 慷慨施主, 神秘主义者, 颓废派, 及各式各样的“东方旅者”出力做的。 (译注: tripper还有个解释是淋病, 可能是语意相关的用法)。但在他们之上, 就如喜马拉雅高于全球山峰一样, 是活佛十四世达赖喇嘛丹增嘉措。永恒, 巨大, 可敬, 包容, 耐心, 谦虚, 简单, 富幽默感, 亲和, 温文, 柔顺, 土朴, 和谐, 透明, 纯净, 永远微笑及大笑 – 这是昆丹(藏语意思“有求即来”或是“活佛”)是众所周知的。没有一项正面人性没有在不同时间用在达赖喇嘛身上。对许多地球上的人类, 就算不是佛教徒, 他代表着我们时代最受尊敬的人。

许多人相信他们在这佛教僧人的率直个性里发现了在我们西方政客及教会领袖身份找不到的一切优雅诚信性格的罕有品质。在满是邪恶, 物欲, 及腐败世界里, 他代表着信誉, 精神王国, 及莲花纯洁; 在琐屑混乱的漩涡中, 他代表意义, 从容及稳定; 在现代资本主义竞争厮夺及灾难报导不断的时代, 他是公义及清楚不动摇意志的保证; 从文化人类战斗密集之处, 他如和平使者般冒起; 在全球到处是宗教迷信当中, 他在传播包容与非暴力。

他的追随者视他若神明, 一个“活佛”(昆丹, Kundun 译注: 以后Kundun多翻作活佛, 容易大家理解些), 称他为他们的“神圣君王”。就是天主教教宗或中世纪帝王也未曾有如此高的精神地位 – 他们不断作为“王者之王”(神)的终极仆人在他面前叩首。可是达赖喇嘛, 至少根据西藏教条, 也拿自己是“至高无上”自居及表现。在他身上显示着“本初佛”(至高佛陀境界) 的神秘形象; 他是血肉之躯的宗教典范。在一些圈子里, 是对昆丹视为救赎者而寄予无比希望。不只是西藏人及蒙古人, 许多台湾华人及西方人士都视他为现代的弥赛亚。(1)

不管这来自(印度)达兰萨拉的僧人表现如何的凡胎俗子, 他的人身傍是围绕着最神秘的猜测。许多见过他的人相信他们有神奇的经历。摩西没法一睹神(耶和华)的庐山真面目, 但对虔诚的佛教徒们却可以看到这“神圣君王”从世界屋脊纡尊尘寰, 而且不同耶和华是这尊容并不是威仪愤怒, 而是优雅微笑, 和霭可亲的。

达赖喇嘛在密宗法相表征早已超越派别在佛教内尽熟晓的了。现在是著名演艺人士, 甚至是西方“有份量”媒体的文章对昆丹的神秘天赋洋溢赞叹之声。马丁斯科塞斯电影《达赖的一生》(Kundun)的编剧梅丽莎•马西森(Melissa Mathison)在先驱论坛报写: “魔力在于寻找第三眼, (译注: 又名内眼, 心眼, 指密学概念中的眉心轮, 泛指通往更高意识界的要塞。也可指是启发感悟境界 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_eye) 美国人希望能进入神秘领域的某种魔法门径, 认为万物都有其神秘的奥妙, 宇宙秩序的解释。西藏对神秘世界提供了最华丽表述。当人们见活佛时, 你从他们脸上可看见他们希望能一刹那超越他们生命, 带他们往另一处。”(先驱论坛报, 1997年3月20)。

无论如何 – 这又是另一魔幻神话 -神圣君王万能角色与他表现的禅修庄严简洁理想配搭。正是这至尊无上(“神圣君王”)及无所不能, 与卑下(“托钵求施”)与弱小的不可思议组合使达赖喇嘛对许多人有吸引力 – 清楚, 浅白语言, 优雅微笑, 简单僧袍, 普通僧鞋, 而在此之后是那万能的圣者。他不断重覆的陈述 - “我…首先视自己为一个人, 然后是一个决定成为佛教僧人的西藏人” -  活佛他征服了西方许多人的心 (达赖喇嘛十四世, 1993a, 第7页, 译注: 这应是自传)。我们可以相信这样一个人, 我们能从他那里得到庇荫, 从他身上我们学到生死的睿智。(2)

从活佛另一经常说的话能找到相反的效果, 那就是将来达赖喇嘛的制度可能变成多余的。“如果我是最后的(达赖), 也许真的是件好事!”(Levenson, 1990, 第366页, 译注: Claude B. Levenson是达赖的宫廷御用文人)。如此承认自己是多余让人们热泪盈眶, 也只有“神圣君王”预言来世可能转化为昆虫作“昆虫弥赛亚”以普渡此低等生命才更催人泪下了。在如此黯然消魂的预言醍醐灌顶下, 没人会不想达赖喇嘛制度永生永世存在。

国家在政治上无能, 掌权者须要出奔也有相类的强大震撼催泪效果。无邪, 和平, 精神, 无助, 弱小的西藏, 被无情, 不仁, 物质主义的中国巨人压制欺侮, 这种印象把“雪域”及其禅修王者提升到一个“和平对抗”的全球象征境界。西藏人和他们“神圣王者”愈受压制, 他的精神力量就愈强, 而活佛就愈成为国际道德权威。他成功完成从自己的弱势抽取力量的不可能任务。

十四世达赖喇嘛的许多演讲, 采访, 声明, 著作, 自传, 书籍及他无数在别人文字里的序跋主要是关于像慈悲, 仁爱, 真诚, 爱心, 非暴力, 人权, 环保视野, 民主声明, 宗教包容, 内在外在灵性, 科学贡献, 世界和平等等。只有真正坏蛋才会完全不认同他的论述。良心试炼, 达致灵修和谐, 培养知足满足, 修习观照, 消除自大, 帮助他人 – 有责任感的人能不认同这些? 谁不想圆满的爱, 澄明睿智, 慷慨好施, 启廸觉悟?

在西方文明里, 达赖喇嘛被视为是最纯净之光。用前总统卡特的话, 他代表把和平慈悲原则放于政治理念中心的新类型世界领袖, 而且以他友善赢取人心的个性, 为我们显示命运无情重创可以坚毅忍耐来承受。如今对上百万人而言, 他象徵着人性尊严与世界责任。除了他的死对头中国共产党外, 直至最近还没人敢批评这位无能/万能的杰出人物。但1996年风云突起, 活佛明亮光环旁骤然乌云密布。

指控, 谴责, 怀疑和咎罪开始在媒体上出现。最初是在网路上, 继而在个别报章报导, 最后在电视节目里(参考[德国] 德国广播电视联合会, 简称“德广联(ARD) 环景(译注: 为电视杂志)1997年11月20日, [瑞士] SF1电视台10 vor 10节目1998年1月5-8日)。当荷里活明星在为他们西藏之神架设祭坛之际, 对达赖喇嘛的公开指责愈来愈频繁。就是一个俗世政客, 可编列成册的指控尚且难堪, 对一个神圣君王这些更是恐怖。何况这些攻击并非来自中国阵营而是他的自己人。

以下严重指控出现在一封据称由西藏流亡人士所写给活佛的公开信中, 批评体制的“专制”:“(专制)的原因是仍然存在, 而且一旦遇上各种条件就立即发展的一种无形疾病。这疾病是什么呢? 那就是你紧抓自己的权力。这是个事实就算有时某些人想对你起民主作用, 你都没办法接受…上师, 你希望成为一位伟大领袖, 但你不理解要实现这理想, 你必须作出“政治上的菩萨宏愿发心”, 相反你踏上了错误的“政治的资量道”(tsog lam) 而那引领你走上一条永远犯错之路。(译注:  藏传佛教修行有所谓“五道十地”; 五道：资量道、加行道、见道、修道、无学道。十地：大乘菩萨十地, 即：欢喜地、无垢地、发光地、焰慧地、极难胜地、现前地、远行地、不动地、善慧地和法云地。有兴趣者可参考 http://www.keary.idv.tw/?p=12) 你相信做一个伟大领袖你必须首先巩固自己的地位, 每当任何反对你的事件发生, 你必须保卫自己而这逐渐蔓延… 再者, 你曾利用宗教为自己目的挑战喇嘛们, 为此你必须发展西藏人民的盲目信仰…比如, 你开始耍时轮金刚公开灌顶政治操作。(3) 正常而言, 时轮金刚灌顶是不公开举行的。但你一再大量利用它来为你自己的政治目的。结果是现在西藏人民又重返你自己早期曾精确批判的那样揉合喇嘛肮脏污浊的政治宗教去… 你已把西藏变成驴子。你可以随自己喜欢把他们到处赶着。用你自己的话你一直说想成为甘地, 但以你的所作所为来看, 你却是像个宗教原教旨主义者, 只是利用宗教信仰来达到政治目的。你的形象是达赖喇嘛, 你咀上挂的是圣雄甘地, 而你的心却像一个宗教独裁者。你是个骗子, 已经苦难重重的西藏人有你作他们的领导真够悲惨。西藏人变得盲信, 他们说达赖喇嘛比西藏原则更重要…拜托, 你想当甘地的话, 别把西藏状态变成17世纪欧洲教会主导一切的那样吧”(Sam, 1997年5月27日 - Newsgroup 16)

指责的单子没完没了。我们在此举我们在这研究里较为详细着墨的一些自1997年以来对活佛的指责: 与日本“毒气上师”麻原彰晃的连系 (“麻原事件”); 在他自己教内以暴力压制宗教信仰自由(“雄登事件”); 分裂其他佛教派别(“噶玛巴事件”); 西藏喇嘛经常性侵妇女 (“索甲仁波切及臻恩.甘宝尔事件”); 排斥同性恋者; 牵涉入一宗祭礼谋杀 (“1997年2月4日事件”); 与国家社会主义者连系 (“海因里希•哈勒事件”); 裙带关系文化 (“尧西事件”; 出卖国家给中国 (放弃西藏主权); 政治谎言; 篡改历史; 数之不尽。一夜之间, 神变成鬼。(4)

突如其来西方人开始问自己喜马拉雅来的这位光明君王是否也有巨大的阴影。达赖喇嘛的“阴影”我们是指是否会在他的人格与政治宗教行事上有黑暗, 阴霾和“肮脏”的一面, 对照着那让以百万人着迷, 由他剪裁成“我们这世纪尚生存着的伟大和平英雄”的纯净光辉形象。

对亲自或透过传媒认识他的大多数人, 活佛的这些黑暗层面是不可想像的。对他们而言, 这根本连想都没想过, 因为活佛把藏传佛教及西藏历史许多黑暗章回恐怖邪恶的一面很有效地隐瞒了。到1996年为止, 撇开那些粗糙打造的中国批评, 他成功地在世界舞台上扮演一个耀目的英雄。

柏拉图洞穴

阴影是一个人的“另一面”，他“隐藏的脸”，阴影是他的“神秘深度”。心理分析教我们有四种方法处理我们的阴影：否认它，压制它，把它投射到别人身上，或结合它。但阴影这议题并不只限于心理学层次, 从柏拉图著名的洞穴比喻开始, 它就成为西方哲学一个流行的意念。在他的“理想国”中, 柏拉图谈到一群背向洞口住在洞穴的“无知”人类。洞外是永恒之光和真正现实, 但人们都以背向着, 他们见到只是在他们眼前投射在洞壁上现实的阴影。他们人性注意本能被这阴影世界所著魔地迷惑而于是他们只认识梦幻及假象, 而对更高层次的事实一无所知。假如穴中人有朝脱困逃离这阴暗住所, 他就会明白自己一直生活在假象的世界。

这比喻被尼采在他的《快乐的科学》中第108格言中改编 – 巧合是跟佛陀的阴影连上 : 尼采写着:“佛陀入寂数百载, 穴中影子仍清晰可见 - 可怖毛骨耸然的影子。 上帝己死: 但以人的德性, 未来数千百年仍有许多显示佛影的山穴 - 而我等 - 我等也须超越他的影”。(5)

这格言鼓励我们对达赖喇嘛作猜测。毕竟他是被奉为“神”或是“活佛” (Kundun)超凡觉悟的人物。但我们可用尼采来反驳, 真正的佛陀(“神”)已死。这会否让达赖喇嘛这人物成为一个阴影而已? 是否伪教条, 伪仪式及伪神秘是原来佛教如今硕果仅存的东西而已? 是否古代释迦牟尼佛留下他“可怖的影子”(达赖喇嘛)而我们是否被试练去把自己从他那里解脱出来? 但是, 我们也可以猜想人们是否因仍然生活在未觉悟的意识洞穴中, 所以他们理解的只有达赖喇嘛的阴影。如果他们可以离开这假象世界, 他们或许体验到活佛为超凡光辉及本初佛(ADI BUDDHA)。

在我们对达赖喇嘛的研究里, 我们对这些和类似的纯粹哲学问题提供明确的答案。但解答之前, 我们必须带读者进入(尼采)壁上出现活佛恐怖阴影的洞穴之中。直至目前, 这洞穴都是闲人免进, 没有特定知识和经验的无缘问津的。

无巧不成话, 每个西藏寺院也真有这样恐怖的阴影密室。除了内有笑容散发和祥庄严佛像的不同神圣的殿堂外, 还有只许少数特许人士进入名为护法神殿(gokhang)(译注: 网上搜集资料时发现, 也有写作gonkhang)的密室。在半满酥油灯摇曳昏黄灯光下, 四周是尘封兵器, 野兽标本, 制炼过的人体器官部份, 西藏恐怖众神就在护法神殿里安家。暴力诡谲黑暗世界的子民在此聚集。在比喻意义而言, 护法神殿象徵着藏传佛教的幽微仪式和西藏隐密的暴力。为了真正了解达赖喇嘛(“活佛”)我们必须深入其“穴”(护法神殿)来对他的宗教作一洞穴学的研究。

译注: 护法神殿一詞是 TanZinTseWang 網友提供翻譯名詞的,
我希望從自己那金條送些表示感謝, 但不知怎樣才可以轉贈?? 以後翻譯上, 大家有所協助, 也一視同仁, 以表謝意

[ 本帖最后由 ltbriar 于 2008-9-8 10:39 编辑 ]

ltbriar

【聲明】本文翻譯僅限Anti-CNN使用，不能轉載, 而且原作者保留譯稿的出版權, 故不能作任何形式的複製或出版。
“现实政治”与“象征政治”

我们的研究分为两部份。第一部名为“仪式作为政治”是对藏传佛教(“密宗”)宗教基础的叙述和批判。第二部(“政治作为仪式”)研究活佛(达赖喇嘛)的权力政治及其历史背景条件。故此政治权力及宗教是我们书的中心重点。

在古老社会(如西藏社会), 平日发生的每事每物 – 从自然现象到政治大事到经常事故 –  都是背后超能力相交为用的结果。凡夫俗子不能主宰自己命运, 他们只为“神”与“魔”所用。如果我们真想了解一点点达赖喇嘛的“尘世”政治, 也必须从渗透藏传佛教传统文化承传的返祖现象角度来探取。因为他所行之秘术(“神佛”现法象于其中)是他政治观及决策的基础结构部份。国家与宗教, 仪式与政治对他是不可分割的。(译注: 从进化而言, 人或是一件事, 不断演化提升, 那是正常的。但, 要是发展中, 把最近的发展, 与最接近的基于切割, 而称这重大进展, 是根本源于源头的始祖的因子, 那就是返祖现象了。这是我个人的理解, 不知对不对。)

但是什么才能把“象征政治”跟“现实政治”分辨清楚? 两者都是与政治有关, 但达到及维持权力的方法是不同的。在现实政治里, 我们面对的都是由人引起及操纵的事实。在这里的主角是政治人物, 将领, 行政总裁, 民意领袖, 文化俊彦等等。权力运作的方法包括武力, 战争, 革命, 法制, 金钱,  繁藻修辞, 文宣, 公开辩论, 及贿赂。

但在象征政治世界里, 我们面对的是“超能力”的能场, 众“神”与“魔”。事务的世俗主角依然是像神职人员, 修士, 术士,  导师, 瑜珈师, 及萨满巫师等凡胎。但他们自视为某种超凡神力的仆人, 或像达赖喇嘛的情况他们自己会超越凡胎变为“神”。所以他展示权力就不只是世俗的权术而是仪式法术象征的操作。对他而言, 象征形象和仪式行为并不仅是符号或艺术行为, 而是藉此以引发神力及影响众人意识的工具。他的政治现实世界是透过“形而上曲径”等神秘而决定的。(6)

这历史与象征事件纵横交织着就形成了那西藏人似乎不可思议的哲学化政治学。藏传佛教相信它不但能透过仪式符咒系统, 利用法术及念力来影响西藏的历史走向, 甚至是整个地球。这结果就是法术与政治的一种返祖混合。政治决策不是由议会及西藏流亡政府来决定, 而是由神的化身及他们附体的超能力。于是它再不是不同主张及领袖的不同政党, 而是明显不同和敌对的神的化身在政坛较劲。

总而言之, 是从达赖喇嘛的个人让整个拙笔难描, 西藏世界观里的精神/法术潜能得以凝聚。按照传统, 他是神圣君王。一举一动, 不管是如何被周围以现实政治来理解, 都是深深与西藏神秘连在一起的。

后者一直被秘密地掩藏着。没有特定知识和经验的无知者没权参与或研究。但近年来, 许多有关藏密(在许多密宗文献与评论中记载)被出版及翻译成欧洲语言。这个向西方意识自我开放的世界看来是同样地精彩神奇。这世界里一次过强力却又自相矛盾地包含着戏剧盛会, 中古法术, 神圣性事, 残酷苦行, 极度神化和对女性最基本的侵犯, 凶狠罪恶, 至高道德规范, 神与魔的存在, 神秘的喜悦, 僻深的逻辑。

引用文献的附注:
我们引用的原来文献毫不例外是由梵文, 藏文或是中文翻译的欧洲语言版本, 及其他西方资料来源。至今有如此多的重要资料已被翻译, 译本已提供对藏传佛教作仔细文化研究很充裕的学术知识基础, 而不必依赖原本语言的原材料了。我们的研究主要是采用“时轮经”(译注: 又作“时轮本续一万二千颂”“时轮根本续”“时轮本续”) (Kalachakra Tantra)。 除了在慕尼黑巴伐利亚省图书馆可以找到由德国藏学家阿尔伯特.格伦威德尔(Albert Grünwedel)极有争议的手写稿外, 如今它还没有被翻译完全。“时轮本续大疏”(Sri Kalachakra)的主要部份由约翰.纽曼(John Roland Newman)翻成英文, 还附有第二代柔旦白莲王(Pundarika, 译注: 又名Kalki Pundarika, 藏语为白玛噶波(Pema Karpo), 是香巴拉第二代柔旦, 即国王)对这些部份写了名为《续略大疏无垢光》(Vimalaphraba)的著名注述。(约翰.纽曼 – 外时间之轮: 时轮经中金刚乘的宇宙论 – “无垢光”- nāmamūlatantrānusāriņī-dvādaśasāhasrikālagukālacakratantrarājaţīkā ) Madison 1987) (译注: 有关对应名称来自中国西藏新闻网 http://www.chinatibetnews.com/BI ... 00712/26/47128.html)

“时轮本续大疏”(Sri Kalachakra (Laghukalachakratantra) ) 是名为Sekoddesha (译注: 找不到中文名称)一部更完整原文的简化本。原文已散失不全 – 但一些重要章句因(大疏)而获保存, 后来又得大法师那洛巴(Naropa)(十世纪, 译注: 那洛巴1016-1100)的注释。注释有一意大利文译本是由 Ranieri Gnoli及Giacomella Orofino翻译的。此外, 我们参考了我们能找到的所有有关时轮经的西方文字资料。故而我们能从无数的注释译本及对密宗的文化历史(非哲学上)评估里, 能充分重组“时轮”的内容。这大量的文献资料详列在书末。为了让西方读者清楚了解这宗教系统的主旨及其方法, 与其他密宗及与欧洲文化作平行对比, 是比精密掌握梵文或藏文原文的文字意义更为重要的。

为方便阅读起见, 我们把藏文及梵文名字作没有区别符号的音译, 而那是主要因应我们西方语言的习惯语法而已。

注释:
(1) 藏学研究家彼得.比夏普(Peter Bishop)认为对许多西方人而言, 喇嘛“教会”的首脑是满足了“重新找回对天父的仰慕之情”(Bishop 1993, 第130页)。比夏普认为活佛作为一个父亲般拯救者的形象呈现与现代社会产生的不安与恐惧, 针对一神宗教的批判, 及欧洲价值系统的溃败的抗衡。

(2) 透过此互相矛盾的效果, 达赖喇嘛以极平凡的言行来增强了他超凡的高度。比如, 许多来访活佛的西方人在看到一个“神-王”经常搓鼻子及“像只猩猩的”搔脑袋后, 都很惊奇。但藏学研究家基尔格(Christiaan Klieger)写道:“此等自然身体语言无损达赖喇嘛的形象地位 – 相反地, 是增加他的个人魅力。它保持了凡胎中神相的不协调形象。”(Klieger 1991, 第79页)

(3) 时轮金刚灌顶是达赖喇嘛进行的最重要仪式, 部份是公开, 部份是秘密灌顶。至今公开仪式都是成千上万人士参与举行的。 对时轮金刚灌顶的分析及解读为本研究的中心内容。

(4) 直至1996年, 所谓西方须分为两个部份 — 推动藏传佛教的积极份子, 以及其他对此事完全一无所知而缄默的人。相对而言, 对佛学作现代或“后现代”文化评论及对西藏神职人员及政治组织作深入研究却是绝无仅有(与讨论研究教宗及罗马天主教的文献之多的情况完全相反) 。以简明, 公开及求实态度去挑战“正信”的阴暗面及其历史, 对佛教或西藏历史作没预定立场及不伪造的分析及解读, 可说是在被意识美化及蓄意虚构神话的历史大海里捞针一样。故此努力尝试探索发掘被掩埋的背景的人就必须在预设立场及蓄意颠倒为基础的巨大逆流里力争克服地游过去。(译注: 也就是说, 游不过去就有被这暗流吞噬的危险!) 这情况自从1996年开始有所转变。

(5) 尼采有关阴影的格言是第108条, 这给术数家丰富土壤作神秘测想, 因为108在藏传佛教里是其中极重要的数字之一。但以当年对西藏的认识程度, 很难相信尼采是有意选择这个数字的。

(6) 无论如何, “象征及仪式政治”与现实政治事件之间是有些神秘的关连。所以西藏喇嘛们他们理所当然地可以把现存的社会现实(包括西方社会发生的)归纳到他们那法术世界观及他们“不合理”的方法手段里。在一个a就是a的现代意识视为似乎狂妄的架构里, 他们眼中的世界历史进化并不单是政治人物, 军方, 商界力量起的作用, 而声称那都是奉着神或魔力而行的。

ltbriar

Part I
RITUAL AS POLITICS

Playboy:
Are you actually interested in the topic of sex?
(14th) Dalai Lama:
My goodness! You ask a 62-year-old monk
who has been celibate his entire life a thing like that.
I don’t have much to say about sex
— other than that it is completely okay
if two people love each other.

(The Fourteenth Dalai Lama in a Playboy interview

(German edition), March 1998)

1. BUDDHISM AND MISOGYNY – AN HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

A well-founded critique and — where planned — a deconstruction of the Western image of Buddhism currently establishing itself should concentrate entirely upon the particular school of Buddhism known as “Tantrism” (Tantrayana or Vajrayana) for two reasons. [1] The first is that the “tantric way” represents the most recent phase in the history of Buddhism and is with some justification viewed as the supreme and thus most comprehensive doctrine of the entire system. In a manner of speaking Tantrism has integrated all the foregoing Buddhist schools within itself, and further become a receptacle for Hindu, Iranian, Central Asian, and even Islamic cultural influences. Thus — as an oft-repeated Tantrayana statement puts it — one who has understood the “Tantric Way” has also understood all other paths to enlightenment.
  
The second reason for concentrating upon Tantrism lies in the fact that it represents the most widely distributed form of Buddhism in the West. It exerts an almost magical attraction upon many in America and Europe. With the Dalai Lama at its head and its clergy of exiled Tibetans, it possesses a powerful and flexible army of missionaries who advance the Buddhization of the West with psychological and diplomatic skill.
  
It is the goal of the present study to work out, interpret and evaluate the motives, practices and visions of Tantric Buddhism and its history. We have set out to make visible the archetypal fields and the “occult” powers which determine, or at least influence, the world politics of the Dalai Lama as the supreme representative of Tantrayana. For this reason we must familiarize our readers with the gods and demons who –not in our way of looking at things but from a tantric viewpoint — have shaped and continue to shape Tibet’s history. We will thus need to show that the Tibetans experience their history and contemporary politics as the worldly expression of a transcendental reality, and that they organize their lives according to laws which are not of this world. In summary, we wish to probe to the heart of the tantric mystery.
  
In light of the complexity of the topic, we have resolved to proceed deductively and to preface the entire book with the core statement of our research in the form of a hypothesis. Our readers will thus be set on their way with a statement whose truth or falsity only emerges from the investigations which follow. The formulation of this hypothesis is necessarily very abstract at the outset. Only in the course of our study does it fill out with blood and life, and unfortunately, with violence and death as well. Our core statement is as follows:
  

The mystery of Tantric Buddhism consists in the sacrifice
of the feminine principle and the manipulation of erotic love
in order to attain universal androcentric power

An endless chain of derived forms of sacrifice has developed out of this central sacrificial event and the associated power techniques: the sacrifice of life, body and soul to the spirit; of the individual to an Almighty God or a higher self; of the feelings to reason; love to omnipotence; the earth to heaven; and so forth. This pervasive sacrificial gnosis, which — as we shall see — ultimately lets the entire universe end in a sea of fire, and which reaches its full maturity in the doctrine of Tantrism, is already in place in the earlier phases of Buddhism, including the legend of Buddha. In order to demonstrate this, we think it sensible to also analyze the three Buddhist stages which precede Tantrayana with regard to the “female sacrifice”, the “manipulation of erotic love”, and the “development of androcentric power”.
  
The history of Buddhism is normally divided into four phases, all of which found their full development in India. The first recounts the legendary life and teachings of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, who bore the name Siddharta Gautama (c.560 B.C.E.–480 B.C.E.). The second phase, which begins directly following his death, is known as Theravada Buddhism. It is somewhat disparagingly termed Hinayana or the “Low Vehicle” by later Buddhist schools. The third phase has developed since the second century B.C.E., Mahayana Buddhism, or the “Great Vehicle”. Tantrism, or Tantrayana, arose in the fourth century C.E. at the earliest. It is also known as Vajrayana,or the “Diamond Vehicle”.
  
Just as we have introduced the whole text with a core hypothesis, we would also like to preface the description of the four stages of historical Buddhism to which we devote the following pages with four corresponding variations upon our basic statement about the “female sacrifice”, the “manipulation of erotic love”, and the “development of androcentric power”:
  
1. The “sacrifice of the feminine principle” is from the outset a fundamental event in the teachings of Buddha . It corresponds to the Buddhist rejection of life, nature and the soul. In this original phase, the bearer of androcentric power is the historical Buddha himself.
2. In Hinayana Buddhism, the “Low Vehicle”, the “sacrifice of the feminine” is carried out with the help of meditation. The Hinayana monk fears and dreads women, and attempts to escape them. He also makes use of meditative exercises to destroy and transcend life, nature and the soul. In this phase the bearer of androcentric power is the is the ascetic holy man or Arhat.
3. In Mahayana, the “Great Vehicle”, flight from women is succeeded by compassion for them. The woman is to be freed from her physical body, and the Mahayana monk selflessly helps her to prepare for the necessary transformation, so that she can become a man in her next reincarnation. The feminine is thus still considered inferior and despicable, as that which must be sacrificed in order to be transformed into something purely masculine. In both founding philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism (Madhyamika and Yogachara), life, nature, the body and the soul are accordingly sacrificed to the absolute spirit (citta). The bearer of androcentric power in this phase is the “Savior” or Bodhisattva.
4. In Tantrism or Vajrayana, the tantric master (yogi) exchanges compassion with the woman for absolute control over the feminine. With sexual magic rites he elevates the woman to the status of a goddess in order to subsequently offer her up as a real or symbolic sacrifice. The beneficiary of this sacrifice is not some god, but the yogi himself, since he absorbs within himself the complete life energy of the sacrifice. This radical Vajrayana method ends in an apocalyptic firestorm which consumes the entire universe within its flames. In this phase the bearer of androcentric power is the “Grand Master” or Maha Siddha.
  
If, as the adherents of Buddhist Tantrism claim, a logic of development pertains between the various stages of Buddhism, then this begins with a passive origin (Hinayana), switches to an active/ethical intermediary stage (Mahayana), and ends in an aggressive/destructive final phase (Tantrayana). The relationship of the three schools to the feminine gender must be characterized as fugitive, supportive and destructive respectively.
  
Should our hypothesis be borne out by the presentation of persuasive evidence and conclusive argumentation, this would lead to the verdict that in Tantric Buddhism we are dealing with a misogynist, destructive, masculine philosophy and religion which is hostile to life — i.e., the precise opposite of that for which it is trustingly and magnanimously welcomed in the West, above all in the figure of the Dalai Lama.
  

The “sacrifice” of Maya: The Buddha legend

Even the story of the birth of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni exhibits the fundamentally negative attitude of early Buddhism towards the sexual sphere and toward woman. Maya, the mother of the Sublimity, did not conceive him through an admixture of masculine and feminine seed, as usual in Indian thought, nor did he enter the world via the natural birth channel. His conception was occasioned by a white elephant in a dream of Maya’s. The Buddha also miraculously left his mother’s womb through the side of her hip; the act of birth thus not being associated with any pain.
  
Why this unnaturalbirth? Because in Buddhism all the female qualities — menstrual blood, feminine sexuality, conception, pregnancy, the act of childbirth, indeed even a woman’s glance or smile — were from the outset considered not to be indicators of the joys of life; rather, in contrast, human life — in the words of Buddha — ultimately exhausts itself in sickness, age and death. It proves itself to be an existence without constancy, as an unenduring element. Life as such, with its constant change and variety, stands opposed in unbearable contrast to eternity and the unity of the spirit. With the abundance of being it tries to soil the “pure emptiness” of consciousness, to scatter the unity of the spirit with its diversity, or — in the words of the best-known contemporary Buddhist cultural theorist, the American Ken Wilber — the “biosphere” (the sphere of life) drags the “noosphere” (the sphere of the spirit) down to a lower evolutionary level. Human life in all its weakness is thus a lean period to be endured along the way to the infinite (“It were better I had never been born”), and woman, who brings forth this wretched existence, functions as the cause of suffering and death.
  
Maya dies shortly after the birth of the Sublimity. As the principle of natural life — her death can be symbolically interpreted this way — she stood in the way of the supernatural path of enlightenment of her son, who wished to free himself and humankind from the unending chain of reincarnation. Is she the ancient primeval mother who dies to make place for the triumphant progress of her sun/son? In Ken Wilber’s evolutionary theory, the slaying of the Great Mother is considered the symbolic event which, in both the developmental history of the individual (ontogenesis) and the cultural history of humanity (phylogenesis), must precede an emancipation of consciousness. The ego structure can only develop in a child after the maternal murder, since the infant is still an undifferentiated unity within the motherly source. According to Wilber, a corresponding process can be observed in human history. Here, following the destruction of the matriarchal, “typhonic” mother cult, cultural models have been able to develop patriarchal transcendence and male ego structures.
  
On the basis of this psychoanalytically influenced thesis, one could interpret Maya’s early death as the maternal murder which had to precede the evolution of the male Buddha consciousness. This interpretation receives a certain spark when we realize that the name Maya means ‘illusion’ in Sanskrit. For a contemporary raised within the Western rationalist tradition, such a naming may seem purely coincidental, but in the magic symbolic worldview of Buddhism, above all in Tantrism, it has a deep-reaching significance. Here, as in all ancient cultures, a name refers not just to a person, but also to those forces and gods it evokes.

Maya — the name of Buddha’s mother — is also the name of the most powerful Indian goddess Maya. The entire material universe is concentrated in Maya, she is the world-woman. In ceaseless motion she produces all appearances and consumes them again. She corresponds to the prima materia of European alchemy, the basic substance in which the seeds of all phenomena are symbolically hidden. The word maya is derived from the Sanskrit root ma-, which has also given us mother, material, and mass. The goddess represents all that is quantitative, all that is material. She is revered as the “Great Mother” who spins the threads of the world’s destiny. The fabric which is woven from this is life and nature. It consists of instincts and feelings, of the physical and the psyche, but not the spirit.
  
Out of her threads Maya has woven a veil and cast this over the transcendental reality behind all existence, a reality which for the Buddhist stands opposed to the world of appearances as the spiritual principle. Maya is the feminine motion which disturbs the meditative standstill of the man, she is the change which destroys his eternity. Maya casts out her net of “illusion” in order to bind the autonomous ego to her, just as a natural mother binds her child to herself and will not let it go so that it can develop its own personality. In her web she suffocates and keeps in the dark the male ego striving for freedom and light. Maya encapsulates the spirit, her arch-enemy, in a cocoon. She is the principle of birth and rebirth, the overcoming of which is a Buddhist’s highest goal. Eternal life beckons whoever has seen through her deceptions; whoever is taken in will be destroyed and reborn in unceasing activity like all living things.
  
The death of Maya, the great magician who produces the world of illusions, is the sine qua non for the appearance of “true spirit”. Thus, it was no ordinary woman who died with the passing of Shakyamuni’s mother. Her son had descended to earth because he wished to tear aside the veil of illusion and to teach of the true reality behind the network of the phenomenal, because he had experienced life and the spirit as forming an incompatible dualism and was convinced that this contradiction could only be healed through the omnipotence of the spirit and the destruction of life. Completely imprisoned within the mythical and philosophical traditions of his time, he sees life, deceptive and sumptuous and behind which Death lurks grinning, as a woman. For him too — as for the androcentric system of religion he found himself within — woman was the dark symbol of transience; from this it follows that he who aspires to eternity must at least symbolically “destroy” the world-woman. That the historical Buddha was spared the conscious execution of this “destructive act” by the natural death of his mother makes no change to the fundamental statement: only through the destruction of maya (illusion) can enlightenment be achieved!
  
Again and again, this overcoming of the feminine principle set off by the early passing of his mother accompanies the historical Buddha on his path to salvation. He experiences both marriage and its polar opposite, sexual dissolution, as two significant barriers blocking his spiritual development that he must surmount. Shakyamuni thus without scruple abandons his family, his wife Yasodhara and his son Rahula, and at the age of 29 becomes “homeless”. The final trigger for this radical decision to give up his royal life was an orgiastic night in the arms of his many concubines. When he sees the “decaying and revolting” faces of the still-sleeping women the next morning, he turns his back on his palace forever. But even once he has found enlightenment he does not return to his own or re-enter the pulsating flow of life. In contrast, he is able to convince Yasodhara and Rahula of the correctness of his ascetic teachings, which he himself describes as a middle way between abstinence and joie de vivre. Wife and son follow his example, leave house and home, and join the sangha, the Buddhist mendicant order.
  
The equation of the female with evil, familiar from all patriarchal cultures, was also an unavoidable fact for the historical Buddha. In a famous key dramatic scene, the “daughters of Mara” try to tempt him with all manner of ingenious fleshly lures. Woman and her erotic love — the anecdote would teach us — prevent spiritual fulfillment. Archetypally, Mara corresponds to the devil incarnate of Euro-Christian mythology, and his female offspring are lecherous witches. But Shakyamuni remained deaf to their obscene talk and was not impressed by their lascivious gestures. He pretended to see through the beauty of the devil’s daughters as flimsy appearance by roaring at them like a lion, “This [your] body is a swamp of garbage, an infectious heap of impurities. How can anybody take pleasure in such wandering latrines?” (quoted by Faure, 1994, p. 29).
  
During his lifetime, the historical Buddha was plagued by a chronic misogyny; of this, in the face of numerous documents, there can not be slightest doubt. His woman-scorning sayings are disrespectful, caustic and wounding. “One would sooner chat with demons and murderers with drawn swords, sooner touch poisonous snakes even when their bite is deadly, than chat with a woman alone” (quoted by Bellinger, 1993, p. 246), he preached to his disciples, or even more aggressively, “It were better, simpleton, that your sex enter the mouth of a poisonous snake than that it enter a woman. It were better, simpleton, that your sex enter an oven than that it enter a woman” (quoted by Faure, 1994, p. 72). Enlightenment and intimate contact with a woman were not compatible for the Buddha. “But the danger of the shark, ye monks, is a characteristic of woman”, he warned his followers (quoted by Hermann-Pfand, 1992, p. 51). At another point, with abhorrence he composed the following:
  

Those are not wise
Act like animals
Racing toward female forms
Like hogs toward mud]…………
Because of their ignorance
They re bewildered by women, who
Like profit seekers in the marketplace
Deceive those who come near
(quoted by D. Paul, 1985, p. 9)

Buddha’s favorite disciple, Ananda, more than once tried to put to his Teacher the explicit desire by women for their own spiritual experience, but the Master’s answers were mostly negative. Ananda was much confused by this refractoriness, indeed it contradicted the stated view of his Master that all forms of life, even insects, could achieve Buddhahood. “Lord, how should we behave towards women?”, he asked the Sublimity — “Not look at them!” — “But what if we must look at them?” — “Not speak to them” — “But what if we must speak to them?” — “Keep wide awake!” (quoted by Stevens, 1990, p. 45)

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[Continued]
This disparaging attitude toward everything female is all the more astounding in that the historical Buddha was helped by women at decisive moments along his spiritual journey: following an almost fatal ascetic exercise his life was saved by a girl with a saucer of milk, who taught him through this gesture that the middle way between abstinence and joie de vivre was the right path to enlightenment, not the dead end of asceticism as preached by the Indian yogis. And again it was women, rich lay women, who supported his religious order (sangha) with generous donations, thereby making possible the rapid spread of his teachings.

The meditative dismemberment of woman: Hinayana Buddhism

At the center of Theravada, or Hinayana, Buddhism — in which Shakyamuni’s teachings are preserved and only negligibly further developed following his death — stands the enlightenment of the individual, and, connected to this, his deliberate retreat from the real world. The religious hero of the Hinayana is the “holy man” or Arhat. Only he who has overcome his individual — and thus inferior — ego, and, after successfully traversing a initiation path rich in exercises, achieves Buddhahood, i.e., freedom from all illusion, may call himself an Arhat. He then enters a higher state of consciousness, which the Buddhists call nirvana (not-being). In order to reach this final stage, a Hinayana monk concerns himself exclusively with his inner spiritual perfection and seeks no contact to any kind of public.

The Hinayana believers’ general fear of contact is both confirmed and extended by their fear of and flight from the feminine. Completely in accord with the Master, for the followers of Hinayana the profane and illusionary world (samsara) was identical with the female universe and the network of Maya. In all her forms — from the virgin to the mother to the prostitute and the ugly crone — woman stood in the way of the spiritual development of the monk. Upon entering the sangha (Buddhist order) a novice had to abandon his wife and children, just as the founder of the order himself had once done. Marriage was seen as a constant threat to the necessary celibacy. It was feared as a powerful competitor which withheld men from the order, and which weakened it as a whole.

Taking Buddha’s Mara experience as their starting point, his successors were constantly challenged by the dark power and appeal of woman. The literature of this period is filled with countless tales of seductions in which the monks either bravely withstood sexual temptations or suffered terribly for their errant behavior, and the victory of chastity over sexuality became a permanent topic of religious discussion. “Meditational formulae for alleviating lustful thoughts were prescribed”, writes Diana Paul, the American religious scholar, “The cathartic release of meditative ecstasy rivaled that of an orgasm [...] The image of woman had gradually developed as the antithesis antithesis of religion and morality.” (D. Paul, 1985, p. 8) The Buddha had already said of the “archetypal” holy man of this period, the ascetic Arhat, that “sexual passion can no more cling to an Arhat than water to a lotus leaf” (quoted by Stevens, 1990, p. 46).

In early Buddhism, as in medieval Christian culture, the human body as such, but in particular the female body, was despised as a dirty and inferior thing, as something highly imperfect, that was only superficially beautiful and attractive. In order to meditate upon the transience of all being, the monks, in a widespread exercise, imagined a naked woman. This so-called “analytic meditation” began with a “perfect” and beautiful body, and transformed this step by step into an old, diseased, and dying one, to end the exercise by picturing a rotting and stinking corpse. The female body, as the absolute Other, was meditatively murdered and dismembered as a symbol of the despised world of the senses. Sexual fascination and the irritations of murderous violence are produced by such monastic practices. We return later to historical examples in which monks carried out the dismemberment of women’s bodies in reality.

There are startling examples in the literature which show how women self-destructively internalized this denigration of their own bodies. “The female novice should hate her impure body like a jail in which she is imprisoned, like a cesspool into which she has fallen”, demands an abbess of young nuns. (Faure, 1994, p. 29) Only in as far as they rendered their body and sexuality despicable, and openly professed their inferiority, could women gain a position within the early Buddhist community at all.

In the Vinaya Pitaka, the great book of rules of the order, which is valid for all the phases of Buddhism, we find eight special regulations for nuns. One of these prescribes that they have to bow before even the lowliest and youngest of monks. This applies even to the honorable and aged head of a respected convent. Only with the greatest difficulty could the Buddha be persuaded to ordinate women. He was convinced that this would cause his doctrine irreparable damage and that it would thus disappear from India 500 years earlier than planned. Only after the most urgent pleas from all sides, but primarily due to the flattering words of his favorite disciple, Ananda, did he finally concede.

But even after granting his approval the Buddha remained skeptical: “To go forth from home under the rule of the Dharma as announced by me is not suitable by women. There should be no ordination or nunhood. And why? I women go forth from the Household life, then the rule of Dharma will not be maintaned over a long period.” (quoted by D. Paul, 1985, p. 78). This reproach, that a nun would neglect her family life, appears downright absurd within the Buddhist value system, since for a man it was precisely his highest duty to leave his family, house and home for religious reasons.

Because of the countless religious and social prejudices, the orders of nuns were never able to fully flourish in Buddhist culture, remained few in number, and to the present day play a completely subordinate role within the power structures of the androcentric monastic orders (sangha) of all schools.

The transformation of women into men: Mahayana Buddhism

In the following phase of Mahayana Buddhism (from 200 B.C.E.), the “Great Vehicle”, the relation to the environment changes radically. In place of the passive, asocial and self-centered exercises of the Arhat, the compassionate activities of the Bodhisattva now emerge. Here we find a superhuman deliverer of salvation, who has renounced the highest fruits of final enlightenment, i.e., the entry into nirvana (not-being), in order to help other beings to also set out along the spiritual path and liberate themselves. The denial of the world of the Hinayana is replaced by compassion (karuna) for the world and its inhabitants. In contrast to the Arhat, who satisfies himself, the Bodhisattva, driven by “selfless love”, ideally wanders the land, teaching people the Buddhist truths, and is highly revered by them because of his self-sacrificing and “infinitely kind” acts. All Bodhisattvas have open hearts. Like Jesus Christ they voluntarily take on the suffering of others to free them from their troubles and motivate
their believers through exemplary good deeds.

The “Great Vehicle” also integrated a large number of deities from other religions within its system and thus erected an impressive Buddhist pantheon. Among these are numerous goddesses, which would certainly have been experienced as a revolution by the anti-woman monks of early Buddhism. However, Mahayana at the same time, in several philosophical schools which all — even if with varying arguments — teach of the illusion of the world of appearances (samsara), questions this realm of the gods. In the final instance, even the heavenly are affected by the nothingness of all being, or are purely imaginary. “Everything is empty” (Madhyamika school) or “everything is consciousness” (Yogachara school) are the two basic maxims of cognitive theory as taught in Mahayana.

The Mahayana phase of Buddhism took over the Vinaya Pitaka (Rules of the Order) from Hinayana and thus little changed for the Buddhist nuns. Nonetheless, a redemptive theme more friendly to women took the place of the open misogyny. Although the fundamentally negative evaluation of the feminine was not thus overcome, the Bodhisattva, whose highest task is to help all suffering creatures, now open-handedly and selflessly supported women in freeing themselves from the pressing burden of their sex. If the thought of enlightenment awakens in a female being and she follows the Dharma (the Buddhist doctrine), then she can gather such great merit that she will be allowed to be reborn as a man in her next life. If she then, in male form, continues to lead an impeccable existence in the service of the “teachings”, then she will, after “her” second death, experience the joy of awakening in the paradise of Buddha, Amitabha, which is exclusively populated by men. Thus, albeit in a sublime and more “humane” form, the destruction of the feminine is a precondition for enlightenment in Mahayana Buddhism too. Achieving the advanced stages of spiritual development and being born a female are mutually exclusive.

Only at the lower grades (from a total of ten) was it possible in the “Great Vehicle” for a woman to act as a Bodhisattva. Even the famous author of the most popular Mahayana text of all, The Lion’s Roar of Queen Sri Mala (4th century C.E.), was not permitted to lay claim to all the Bodhisattva stages and therefore did not attain complete Buddhahood. Women were thus fundamentally and categorically denied the role of a “perfected” Buddha. For them, the “five cosmic positions” of Brahma (Creator of the World), Indra (King of the Gods), Great King, World Ruler (Chakravartin), and Bodhisattva of the two highest levels were taboo.

Indeed, even the lower Bodhisattva grades were opened to women by only a few texts, such as the Lotus Sutra (c. 100 C.E.) for example. This text stands in crass opposition to the traditional androcentric views which were far more widespread, and are summarized in a concise and unambiguous statement from the great scholar Asangha (4th century C.E.): “Completely perfected Buddhas are not women. And why? Precisely because a Bodhisattva .... has completely abandoned the state of womanhood. Ascending to the most excellent throne of enlightenment, he is never again reborn as a woman. All women are by nature full of defilement and of weak intelligence. And not by one who is by nature full of defilement and of weak intelligence, is completely perfected Buddhahood attained.” (Shaw, 1994, p. 27)

In Mahayana Buddhism, gender became a karmic category, whereby incarnation as a woman was equated with lower karma. The rebirth of a woman as a man implied that she had successfully worked off her bad karma. Correspondingly, men who had led a sinful life were reincarnated as “little women”.

As so many women nevertheless wished to follow the Way of the Buddha, a possible acceleration of the gender transformation was considered in several texts. In the Sutra of the Pure Land female Buddhists had to wait for their rebirth as men before they achieved enlightenment; in other sutras they “merely” needed to change their sex in their current lives and thus achieve liberation. Such sexual transmutations are of course miracles, but a female being who reached for the fruits of the highest Buddhahood must be capable of performing supernatural acts. “If women awaken to the thought of enlightenment,” says the Sutra on changing the Female Sex, “then they will have the great and good person’s state of mind, a man’s state of mind, a sage’s state of mind. […] If women awaken to the thought of enlightenment, then they will not be bound to the limitation of a woman’s state of mind. Because they will not be limited, they will forever separate from the females sex and become sons.” I.e. a male follower of Buddha. (quoted by D. Paul, 1985, p. 175/176).

Many radical theses of Mahayana Buddhism (for example, the dogma of the “emptiness of all being”) lead to unsolvable contradictions in the gender question. In principle, the Dharma (the teachings) say that a perfect being is free from every desire and therefore needs to be asexual. This requirement, with which the insignificance of gender at higher spiritual levels is meant to be emphasized, however, contradicts the other orthodox rule that only men have earned enlightenment. Such dissonant elements are then taken advantage of by women . There are several extremely clever dialogs in which female Buddhists conclusively annul their female inferiority with arguments which are included within the Buddhist doctrine itself. For example, in the presence of Buddha Shakyamuni the girl Candrottara explains that a sex change from female to male makes no sense from the standpoint of the “emptiness of all appearances” taught in the Mahayana and is therefore superfluous. Whether man or woman is also irrelevant for the path to enlightenment as it is described in the Diamond Sutra.

The asexuality of Mahayana Buddhism has further led to a religious glorification of the image of the mother. This is indeed a most astonishing development, and is not compatible with earlier fundamentals of the doctrine, since the mother is despised as the cause of rebirth just as much as the young woman as the cause of sexual seduction. An apotheosis of the motherly was therefore possible only after the monks had “liberated” the mother archetype from its “natural” attributes such as conception and birth. The “Great Mothers” of Mahayana Buddhism, like Prajnaparamita for instance, are transcendental beings who have never soiled themselves through contact with base nature (sexuality and childbearing).

The have only their warmth, their protective role, their unconditional readiness to help and their boundless love in common with earthly mothers. These transcendental mothers of the Mahayana are indeed powerful heavenly matrons, but the more powerful they are experienced to be, the more they dissolve into the purely allegorical. They represent “perfect wisdom”, the “mother of emptiness”, “transcendent love”. When, however, the genesis of these symbolic female figures is examined (as is done at length in our analysis of Vajrayana Buddhism), then they all prove to be the imaginary products of a superior male Buddha being.

In closing this chapter we would like to mention a phenomenon which occurred much more frequently than one would like to accept in Mahayana: “compassionate copulation”. Sexual intercourse between celibate monks and female beings was actually allowed in exceptional circumstances: if it was performed out of compassion for the woman to be slept with. There could even be a moral imperative to sleep with a woman:“If a woman falls violently in love with a Bodhisattva and is about to sacrifice her life for him, it is his duty to save her life by satisfying all her desires” (Stevens, 1990, p. 56). At least some monks probably took much pleasure in complying with this commandment.

In Western centers of modern Buddhism too, irrespective of whether Zen or Lamaist exercises are practiced, it is not uncommon for the masters to sleep with their female pupils in order to “spiritually” assist them (Boucher, 1985, p. 239). But it is mostly a more intimate affair than in the case of the present-day Asian guru who boasted to an American interviewer, “I have slept with a thousand women. One of them had a hump. I gave her my love, and she has become a happy person. ... I am a ‘Buddhist scouring pad’. A scouring pad is something which gets itself dirty but at the same time cleans everything it touches” (Faure, 1994, p. 92).

Footnotes:
  [1] The Sanskrit word tantra, just like its Tibetan equivalent rguyd, has many meanings, all of which, however, are originally grouped around terms like ‘thread’, ‘weave’, ‘web’, and ‘network’. From these, ‘system’ and ‘textbook’ finally emerged. The individuals who follow the Tantric Way are called Tantrika or Siddha. A distinction is drawn between Hindu and Buddhist systems of teaching. The latter more specifically involves a definite number of codified texts and their commentaries.

ltbriar

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仪式作为政治

花花公子(雜誌):
你事實上對性這話題有興趣嗎?
十四世達賴喇嘛:
我的天! 你問一個62歲
一個一輩子一直獨身的老喇嘛這種事。
有關性我沒什麼好說的
- 只就是要是兩人彼此相愛
那就完全沒問題。
(十四世達賴喇嘛在一次接受花花公子訪問
(德國版), 1998年3月)

1. 佛教及女性貶抑主義 – 歷史概述

對當下正形成的佛教於西方的形象要作嚴謹批判及具方法設計的解構, 就有兩個原因是必須完全集中在這個名為“密宗”(密乘或金剛乘)這個佛教宗派上。(1) 原因之一是“密乘”代表著佛教歷史的最近期發展, 而有若干理據被視為是整個體系的至高境界及最完整的學說教條。換言之, 密宗把從前的佛教宗派都傳承了, 而且又匯聚了印度, 伊朗, 中亞, 甚至乎是伊斯蘭的文化影響。所以 - 一如經常被反覆宣示的密乘說法所言 -一個人明白了“密乘”, 也就明白了所有其他悟道的法門了。

第二個把目標集中在密宗的原因是它基本上是在西方流傳最廣的佛教形式。對美洲及歐洲的許多人來說, 它差不多散發著魔幻般的吸引力。以達賴喇嘛為首, 加上流亡藏人組成的僧侶, 它形成一隊推動西方佛教化, 具有心理及外交能力的強勁又靈活的神職大軍。

這研究的目的是去分析, 解讀及評估密宗的動機, 措施做法及願景, 和它的歷史。我們計劃把那些決定, 或至少是影響達賴喇嘛作為金剛乘至高無上代表的政治世界的原型層面(譯註: 此處選用了與心理學有關的原型釋義, 容格(Carl Gustav Jung)分析心理學中有四大原型：自性, 男性無意識的女性性格形象, 女性無意識的男性性格形象, 及陰影: 無意識與自我相反的性格與形象)及“神秘”能力明顯呈現出來。為此, 我們必須讓讀者那些, 不是從我們慣用觀察角度而是從密宗的觀點, 塑造及一直仍在塑造西藏歷史的那些神及魔。我們於是需要顯示西藏人所體驗的歷史與現代政治是作為先驗現實的世俗表述, 而他們依照一套並不是這世界的法則來組織自己的生活的。簡然之, 我們希望探測密宗神秘的中樞。

因題目的複雜性, 我們決定演繹式的推展, 並以研究的中心論述以假設形式作為全書前言。讀者於是從一句陳述出發, 然後只有在研究中發現它虛實真偽。這假設的構思從開始就需是很抽象的。只有在我們研究中它獲賦予血與生命, 只可惜是, 也同時有了暴力及死亡。我們的中心論述如下:

藏傳佛教的神秘在它的犧牲
女性主義及操縱運用性愛
以求達致普遍的男性中心權力

從這中央犧牲奉獻及有關的權力技巧中已形成出無窮無盡一連串的犧牲衍生形式: 以生命, 軀體及意識向鬼神犧牲, 個人對全能大神或「真我」的犧牲; 為全能萬能犧牲理智明辨愛心等感覺, 為天國犧牲塵世大地, 諸如此類。這瀰漫著犧牲的靈慧直覺 - 如我們將會看到的
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最終讓整個宇宙陷入一片火海, 而且在密宗教條裡臻於成熟, 其實它在早期佛教包括佛陀的傳說中是早已存在。為了證明這點, 我們覺得也應分析金剛乘之前已有的三個佛教階段裡的「犧牲女性主義」, 「操縱運用性愛」及「男性中心權力發展」。佛教歷史大致可分四時期, 全都在印度達至完整成熟發展的。最初時期為俗名悉達多(元前560-480年)的釋迦牟尼佛傳奇一生及其教化事跡。第二時期為佛陀入寂後開始, 名為上座部佛教。它又經常版後來的佛學宗派給予「小乘佛教」略帶貶義之名。第三時期是從元前二世紀開始發展的大眾部佛教或「大乘佛教」。密宗或密教最早只開始於公元四世紀, 又名「金剛乘佛教」。

一如我們以中心論述作為全書的前言, 我們也想在介紹佛教歷史的四個階段之前, 利用數頁就我們「犧牲女性主義」, 「操縱運用性愛」及「男性中心權力發展」的中心論述來提出四個相應的變化版本:

1. 「犧牲女性主義」是在佛陀教化中一開始很基本的事。它與佛教否定生命, 自然及意識相符。(譯註: 這裡單憑文字翻譯可能容易混淆, 也許作者以捨棄作為否定來解釋)。在此最初時期, 掌有男性中心權力就是歷史上的佛陀本人。

2. 在上座部或「小乘」佛教, 「犧牲女性主義」是利用冥想達致的。上座部僧侶對女性生驚懼恐怖心, 力圖擺脫她們(譯註: 小乘修行中有所謂「白骨觀」, 但也有認為「白骨觀」不是小乘而是可以達大乘及密法的。)他也利用冥想運作來了斷及超越生命, 自然及意識。在這時期, 掌有男性中心權力就是修行的聖者或稱阿羅漢。

3. 在大眾部或「大乘」佛教, 迴避女性為對她們悲憫所取代。要把女性從其肉身釋放出來, 而大乘僧侶無私的協助她為必須的轉變作準備, 令她在未來轉世中化為男身。於是女性依然被視為較低等及卑下的, 如此必須捨棄以能轉化為某種純男性。在大乘佛教的兩個基本哲學學派(中觀派及唯識瑜伽行派)裡, 生命, 自然, 軀體及意識都為最終的阿賴耶識(心, citta)而捨棄。在這時期, 掌有男性中心權力就是「普渡者」或稱菩薩。

4. 在密宗或金剛乘佛教, 金剛上師(上師, yogi)以悲憫女性換取對女性的絕對控制。在性魔幻儀式中他把女性提高至女神地位以求最終把她奉獻為實則或是象徵性的犧牲品。這奉獻的受益者並不是某一位神祗而是上師本人, 因為他在自己身上攝取犧牲品的全部生命能量。這激烈的金剛乘修練方法最後以像末日般火焰吞噬整個宇宙為終結。在這時期, 掌有男性中心權力就是「密行尊者」或稱大法王。

如果, 按照藏傳佛教追隨者所稱, 佛教的不同時期之間有發展的邏輯的話, 那麼就是由消極的起源(小乘), 轉變至積極/倫理中期(大乘), 最後歸結至一個激烈/毀滅的終期(金剛乘)。三個學派與女性的關係必然分別以無常, 支援及毀滅來定性。

如果能提出有力證據及有結論的論點來確認我們的陳述的話, 這就足以指證在藏傳佛教裡, 我們是跟一個厭惡女性, 毀滅性的男性哲學及一個與生命敵對的宗教在打交道 - 也就是说，与藏传佛教在西方广受信任和欢迎的原因, 乃至达赖喇嘛本人形象所代表的是背道而驰的。

佛母摩耶夫人的“犧牲” : 佛陀的傳說

就連釋迦牟尼佛誕生的故事也顯示著早期佛教對性世界及女性的基本負面心態。世尊之母摩耶夫人並非如印度通常想法由男女種子混合成孕, 而且他也非通過一般生產過程來到世上。他是因摩耶夫人夢見一頭白象，從而懷孕。佛陀也是神奇地從她臀部離開母親子宮, (譯註: hip似乎是英文翻譯之誤, 一般中國流傳的佛教傳說, 釋迦是從母親右肋降生的。) 此出生方法於是並無痛苦。

為何有這樣與眾不同的生產? 因為在佛教裡, 所有女性特質 - 經血, 女性特徵, 交配, 懷孕, 產子, 的確連女人的一瞟一笑 - 都從一開始就不被視為顯示生命的喜悅; 而相反地, 人生 - 依佛陀之言 - 最終在病, 老, 死中消耗盡。它自證, 作為不能持久的東西, 它只是不永恆的存在。如此的生命, 不斷更易千變萬化, 肯定是永恆及智性凝聚無法容忍對立的障礙。恆河沙數的它企圖污染意識的「淨空」, 以多樣化來分散智性的凝聚, 或 - 以著名現代佛教文化理論家, 美國肯恩.威爾伯的用語 - 「生物圈」(生命域)把「智慧圈」拉到一個較低的進化層次了。充滿弱點的人生在長路漫漫中於是一段難以忍受的時空(「我最好沒曾誕下來」), 而促使這不幸存在出現的女人就成了苦難及死亡的成因了。

摩耶夫人在產下世尊後不久就死去。以自然法則 – 她的死亡可以象徵式解讀為 – 她是希望為自己及眾生從不斷輪迴中解脫的兒子覺悟的超凡道路上的障礙。她是否遠古時代的母親為開拓她太陽/兒子光榮前途而死亡? 在肯恩.威爾伯的演變理論中, 讓大地母神死亡是被視作象徵事件, 在個體發生(ontogenesis)的發展過程, 還是人類種系發生(phylogenesis)文化歷史, 都是先於自覺釋放的。只有在母體滅亡後始能在孩子建立起自我架構, 因為孩子跟母體仍處於沒有分割的一體。根據威爾伯, 在人類歷史也能看到相類的過程。在此, 隨著母系氏族, 「人獸合體」母神的毀滅, 才能發展起父系的卓越及男性自我架構。

在此精神分析角度影響的論題基礎下, 可以把摩耶夫人的早亡視作男性佛陀發展覺性所必先經的母性毀滅。當我們得知摩耶在梵文意為「幻變」時, 不禁對這種解讀有靈光一閃之感。對於一直在西方理性傳統受現代教育成長的人而言, 這樣的名命可能純屬巧合, 但在佛教神奇象徵意義的世界觀, 特別是在藏傳佛教裡, 它有很深沉的重要性。在這裡, 一如所有古代文化, 一個名字不單是一個人的名稱, 而且也代表它引發的那些力量及神祗。

摩耶 – 佛陀母親的名稱 – 也是印度最強的女神幻变的名字。整個物質宇宙都是集中在幻變女神裡, 她是世界女人之冠。她不斷以不同的面目出现, 又不斷变改它們。她就好比歐洲煉金術中的第一元素(prima material), 是一切現象的起因象徵地隱藏的基本物質。摩耶一詞是從梵文字根ma-衍變而成的, 同時可以是母親, 物質及重量的意思。女神代表了所有量及所有質的東西。她於是被尊為「大地母神」編織著世界命運之經緯。由此而編織出來的就是生命及大自然。它包含著本能與觸感, 物質及精神上, 但卻不存在著意識。

從她的線, 幻變女神織就一塊紗覆蓋在所有事物超驗真如(譯註: 梵文Thathata或Bhutatathata的意譯，為佛教術語，意思是世界的真實本質)之上,佛教徒堅守以對抗塵世色相為修行宗旨的真如。幻變是擾亂人類冥想寂止的女性動作, 她是毀滅他永恆的變幻。幻變女神拋出她「幻象」之網讓她能掌握自主的自我, 就像母親把孩子約束在身旁不釋放讓他能發展自己個性一樣。在她網中, 她使男性追求自由及光明的自我窒息及留在黑暗之中。幻變把她天敵 -意識- 如繭般封蔽起來。她是生與再生的定律, 而擺脫這定律是佛教徒的最高理想。誰能看破她幻術的人就得永生召喚; 誰被迷了就被毀滅而跟一切眾生永無休止的再生輪迴。

為世界製造幻象的大魔術師 - 幻變之死, 是「真意識」顯露的必要條件。所以釋迦牟尼母親的死並不是一個普通女人死去。她兒子投生世上是因為他想撕破那幻象之網, 並教化在現象網絡後的真如真實, 因為他經歷生命與意識組成不可妥協的雙重性, 而認定這矛盾只能從意識的全能威力及生命消滅來解決。完全囿於他所處時代的神話及哲學傳統中, 他把生命看成是虛幻浮華, 死亡在其後如一個女人般在咧嘴笑著。對他而言, 他內在的宗教男性中心權力系統 – 女人是短暫的黑暗象徵, 由此引申於是有志卞永恆者必須至少是象徵式的把大地母神「消滅」。達致覺悟必先毀滅摩耶(幻變)這基本論說並不因歷史上的佛陀因母親的自然死亡而無需真正執行而有所改變。

他母親早逝引發之對女性主義剋制一次又一次相隨在佛陀得道的道路上。他曾經歷婚姻及它另一極的跟配偶離異, 是他意識覺悟上必須跨越的兩大障礙。釋迦牟尼於是毫不猶豫在29歲時拋下家庭, 妻子耶舒陀羅(Yasodhara)及兒子羅喉羅(Rahula), 成為流浪者。最後引發這放棄皇族榮華富貴生活的突破決定是在他一眾姬妾狂歡作樂的晚上。當他翌晨從仍然睡夢眾女的「腐朽噁心」臉龐時, 他轉身離皇宮一去不回。但當他悟道後, 他沒有重回他自己生活或是生活脈動裡。相反地, 他成功說服耶舒陀羅及羅喉羅他修行教化是對的, 把自己描述是在禁慾及塵世歡愉的中間路線。妻兒也學他出家, 加入佛教托缽的僧伽行列。

所有家長式文化都似曾相識地把女性與邪惡劃上等號, 歷史上的佛陀也不能倖免。在一個著名很戲劇化的重要情景是「魔羅(Mara)眾女兒」以各種聰明手法的餌誘他。軼聞教導我們 - 女人跟她的愛慾妨礙真如修持。從原型而言, 魔羅相類於歐洲基督教傳說中的魔鬼, 而他的女性後代就是淫蕩的女巫。但釋迦牟尼對她們淫言蕩行置若罔聞, 無動於中。假想透視魔女的美貌成臭皮囊, 他對她們作獅子吼:「這[你們的]軀體不過是一一窩臭物, 一堆髒穢。誰能從如此流動的茅坑得到快意?」(福萊 (Faure) 引用1994年, 第29頁)

在他一生裡, 歷史中的佛陀習慣性受女性貶抑主義所困擾;面對無數的文件(證明), 對此是毫無疑問的。他藐視女性的言語是失禮, 尖酸又傷人的。他授門徒說:「持刀魔王大盜尚可語, 蚖蛇含毒猶亦可觸, 不可獨與女人言語」(貝林格(Bellinger) 引用 1993年, 第246頁) (譯註: “執劍向敵, 是猶可勝, 女賊害人, 是不可禁…蚖蛇含毒猶亦可觸。女人之心不可得實” 引自大智度論釋初品中羼提波羅蜜義第二十四), 甚至更激進地:「寧以身分內毒蛇口中，終不以此而觸女人。寧以此身投熾然猛火, 終不以此而觸女人。」(福萊 (Faure) 引用1994年, 第72頁) 。對佛陀而言, 覺悟與跟女人親密接觸是水火不容的。「但鯊魚之險, 眾比丘, 如是女人性。」(方特(Hermann-Pfand)引用1992年, 第51頁。譯註: 無法在網上查得較接近的經文原句。) 在另一處, 他厭絕的寫了以下句子:

彼无智慧人
行于畜生法
驰趣于女色
犹猪乐粪秽
……………
无明缠覆故
为女所迷乱
如市求利人
矫诈来亲附
(保羅(D. Paul)引用, 1985年, 第9頁
譯註: 引自大宝积经．菩萨见实会http://bbs.jiexieyin.org/dispbbs.asp?BoardID=11&ID=17088)

佛陀最喜愛弟子阿難(Ananda)曾多次向其師懇求女人明確希望自己有修行證道機會, 可是師傅一再拒絕。阿難被這固執困惑了, 的確它是跟他師傅的一切眾生, 就連昆蟲, 都能證佛道之說相矛盾的。「世尊, 当云何与女人从事？」他問佛陀 -「莫与相见!」-「若需相見?」-「设与相见，莫与共语!」-「若需共语?」-「设共语者，当专心意!」(史提芬斯 (Stevens)引用1990年, 第45頁。譯註: 引自增一阿含經)

對這貶抑女性一切的態度讓人更震驚的是佛陀在尋道的關鍵時刻受到女人的幫助: 在苦行修道差不多要餓死時他受一女子用牛奶供養救了一命。透過這行動, 他學會了禁慾與縱慾之間的中道, 而不是印度瑜伽派所宣揚的苦行修煉, 才是修行的正道。也是女人, 一些富有優婆夷(信女)慷慨布施來支持他的教派(僧伽), 使他的教化才能速度傳播。

ltbriar

冥想中肢解女性: 小乘佛教

以保存釋迦牟尼教化為中心, 只在他入寂後稍有發展的上座部, 或是小乘佛教堅持個人悟道, 而由此引申是他有意從現實世界中抽離。小乘佛教的證得最高境界是「尊者」, 或阿羅漢。只有超越「我執」 – 乃至較次的「我見」, 而且必須經歷無數鍛鍊修行過程, 才能證滅盡七轉識的佛道, 也就是能破除幻象, 才能稱為阿羅漢。他於是進入更高層次的覺境, 佛教徒稱之為涅槃(無我) (譯註: 阿羅漢可證能證有餘依涅槃與無餘依涅槃，不能證得本來自性清淨而有染污涅槃與無住處大涅槃。) 要達到這最高境界, 小乘僧侶必須專注於他內心靈修圓滿, 而不關注任何外界。

小乘佛教信眾普遍恐懼外界接觸是由他們恐懼女性所證實, 又從而加強為逃避女性。完全依照佛陀指示, 小乘佛教信眾視世俗虛幻世界(色界, 譯註: samsara梵文原意指輪迴, 但後來在衍生的語言成了指神學上所指的俗世)就像女性世界, 幻變女神的幻網一樣。在她不同的幻相 – 從處女到母親到**和乾癟老太婆 – 女人都是擋在僧侶修行道路上。在出家成為僧伽(佛教神職人員)之時, 僧侶必須放棄俗家的妻兒, 一如創教的佛陀所為。婚姻被視為所必須的獨身修行的永久威脅, 是把男人留在僧伽組織的強大競爭力而最終是把組織整體弱化的。

以佛陀及幻變女神的經歷作為出發點, 他的追隨者經常面臨女人惡勢力及色誘的挑戰。這時期的文獻充斥著誘僧的故事, 要嘛僧侶勇敢抗拒性誘惑或是因不堅定而嚐盡惡果, 而定慧戰勝性色一直成為宗教討論中的基調。美國宗教學者戴安娜.保羅寫著:「消除慾念的冥想方法一一被記載, 冥想醍醐灌頂的喜悅(譯註:原文具體字眼是如瀉藥的釋放, 我想不出佛教有如此比方)與性高潮匹敵[...]。女性形象逐漸演變成宗教及道德的對立面。」(D. 保羅引用1985年, 第8頁)。佛陀已描述了這時期的聖者的「原型」, 禁慾的阿羅漢「若無世間愛念者，則無憂苦塵勞患。一切憂苦消滅盡，猶如蓮華不著水。」(史提芬斯 (Stevens)引用1990年, 第46頁)

在早期佛教, 一如中古基督教文化, 人體, 尤其是女性身體, 是被視為污穢及低下, 很不完美及只是表面漂亮具吸引力的。在冥想眾生無常, 僧侶很普遍的功課是在幻想一個全裸女人。這是所謂「法門觀照」, 由一個「圓滿」美麗的身體開始, 逐步將它轉化為一老, 病, 死, 功課最後是呈現一副腐朽臭惡的屍體。女性身體, 作為絕對的它物, 在冥想中被殺及解體作為鄙棄慾界世界的象徵。僧侶修習中產生如此的性幻想及兇殘暴力的厭惡刺激。我們以後再檢視一些現實中僧侶進行肢解女體的歷史例子。

在文獻中還有讓人震驚的例子顯示女性如何自殘地鄙視自己身體。一個尼庵戒年輕女尼「初入門比丘尼當視臭皮囊处可怕的深渊，当牢狱，如粪坑。」(福萊 (Faure) 引用1994年, 第29頁) 。只有當她們以身體,性別為恥, 公開承認自己鄙下, 女性才能在早期佛教組織內有一席地。

在佛教所有各時期都奉為重要戒律經典的律藏中, 我們找到有關比丘尼八敬法(譯註:見http://www.chibs.edu.tw/publication/LunCong/023/1-32.htm)的戒律。其中一條規定比丘尼須絕對敬重比丘, 甚至必須向最低級最年幼的比丘叩首行禮。那怕是著名年高德劭的尼庵主持也須受此戒律。佛陀極勉強地讓女人出家受戒為尼。他相信此舉令他的教條受到不可彌補的傷害，使得正法提早五百年從印度消失。在多方極力懇求, 特別是他至愛弟子阿難勸說下, 他最後才讓步。

可是就是在同意後, 佛陀仍然持懷疑態度:「此諸女人多過失故。多煩惱故。是故無有見道得戒。何故? 若使女人得於此法中捨家者。令此梵行不得久住。」(D. 保羅引用1985年, 第78頁)。這種訓斥指女尼會忽略家庭, 似在佛教價格觀念內屬荒誕無稽, 因為在男性而言, 為宗教理由出家放棄一切正是他的最高責任。

由於這無數的宗教及社會偏見, 在佛教文化裡比丘尼組織一直都不能完全發展蓬勃, 數量有限, 而且時至今日在各個派別裡都是次居於男性比丘(僧伽)之下。

女轉男身 - 大眾部佛教

在大眾部佛教(從元前200年開始)「大乘」時期, 環境起了很大變化。取代阿羅漢消極, 遯世, 自利修行, 出現是菩薩的慈悲普渡。這裡我們看到是一個超凡救拔普渡者, 放棄得證涅槃(無我)的最終修行的最高成果, (譯註: 以我理解, 只有地藏菩薩是自動放棄成佛外, 其他菩薩與佛之別是佛是覺行圓滿者。簡單來說, 佛也是菩薩, 但菩薩卻不一定等於佛。) 以救拔其他眾生也能像他們一樣修行獲得解脫。上座部的排斥世界變成對世界及眾生的慈悲(karuna, 譯註: 梵文慈悲之意) 。與自利的阿羅漢不同, 菩薩受「無私大愛」驅使, 理想是四處遍歷教導人們佛教的真諦, 而因為他的自我犧牲及「大慈大悲」而受到高度敬重。一切菩薩都有大愛心。像耶穌一樣, 他們自願承擔別人苦難以求救拔眾生, 用善行以身作則去感化他們的信徒。

「大乘」在其體系內也納入其他宗教的許多神祗, 於是建立了一個壯觀的神界。在其中有無數女性神祗, 當然對早期佛教反女性僧侶而言是個革新體驗。但與此同時, 雖然論點各有不同, 上座部不同宗派在弘揚塵世色即是空(色界)幻象之際, 也在質疑這神界。到後來, 連神也受諸法性空或一切皆幻所影響。「諸法皆空」(中觀宗)或「萬法唯識」(唯識瑜伽行派, 或唯識宗)為大乘佛教認知理論的兩大基礎準則。

佛教大乘時期承傳了小乘時期的律藏(戒律), 於是對比丘尼戒律甚少改變。不過, 畢竟由對女性較友善的實踐主調替代了公開對女性貶抑。雖然對女性基本負面評價沒有完全改觀, 以救拔一切眾生苦難為己任的菩薩現也伸手無私地支持女性從沉重性別包袱中尋求解脫開釋自己。如女性覺悟及皈依佛法(佛教戒律教條), 在她積聚若干大功德後, 她在下一世將修得男身。在轉男身後如果持續精進依「法」完善修行, 那麼她在「她」第二生終結後, 將獲在只有男性的阿彌陀佛西方極樂淨土裡得享福樂。故此, 儘管昇華以較「人本」形式出現, 消滅女性仍同樣是大乘佛教覺悟的先決條件。在修行中證最高境界與生為女體是不能兩立的。

在「大乘」佛教中, 女人只有在低層(共有十等)才能成為菩薩。就是流傳最廣大乘經典的著名作者, 獅子吼一乘大方便方廣經的勝鬘夫人(公元四世紀)也不能證得全部的菩薩果位, 因此沒有獲得佛道的圓覺。所以女性基本上也絕對上是不能達到「覺行圓滿」的佛陀的。對她們而言, 「五品觀行位」中梵天(世界創造者), 帝釋天(眾神之首, 或稱因陀羅), 魔王, 法王(轉輪王), 以及菩薩道的最高兩果位都是不可達的。

確實, 就連菩薩道最低兩果位也是在少數經卷如法華經(約公元100年, 譯註: 又名妙法蓮華經)中提出女性也能證果。這些文字是跟極普遍的傳統男性中心的看法是完全對立的。著名學者無著菩薩 (公元四世紀, 譯註: 音譯為阿僧伽或阿僧佉)曾精準無誤的總結:「取正覺者不為女身。何解? 正因菩薩…完全捨棄女身故。(譯註: 淨土十疑論序第九疑-  設我得佛十方世界一切女人。稱我名號。厭惡女身。捨命之後。更受女身者。不取正覺。http://arts.cuhk.edu.hk/~hkshp/c ... /JingTuShiYiLun.htm) 證無上菩提已, 不再生女身。女身垢穢，非是法器，云何能得無上菩提？」(肖(Shaw)引用1994年, 第27頁)

大乘佛教中, 性別成了果報區分, 再生為女人是等同於獲低等果報。再生若女轉男身則暗示她成功消除惡果報。相對而言, 男人一生行惡就會再生為「小女人」為報應。

因有如此多女性希望從佛法修行, 在若干經典中出現了可以加速女轉男身的方法。在淨土經中, 女佛教徒必須等待再生為男才能完成正癿, 而在其他經典中, 他們「只」須在今世轉換性別就能離苦得樂。這些性別轉換當然是奇蹟, 但能證佛陀最高果位的女人也一定有相當神通力量。女轉男的經書上如是說:「若有女人發菩提心，則是大善人心、大丈夫心[…]，若諸女人發菩提心，則更不雜女人諸結縛心。以不離故，永離女身，得成男子。」(譯註: 以上節錄《佛說轉女身經》《大正藏》第十四冊) 亦即是佛陀的男性追隨者。(D. 保羅引用1985年, 第175/176頁)

大乘佛教的許多極端論說(如「諸法皆空」的教條主義)就是將性別問題引導到牢不可解的矛盾之中。原則上, 佛法(學說)是說圓覺是超越一切慾念, 故此必須是無男女相的。這本來是要強調性別在修行較高層次是毫不重要的要求, 卻跟只有男性才能修行悟道的其他保守戒律起了衝突。這些不一情況於是被女性利用。曾經有幾處極富睿智的辯論, 女性佛教徒引用佛典本身所載的理據有效地駁倒她們女性卑下的觀念。例如女子月上(譯註: 印度古代毗耶离城长者毗摩罗诘之女)就在釋迦牟尼面前解釋從「凡所有相，皆是虛妄」角度而言, 大乘佛教說的女轉男是完全沒意義, 故而是多餘的。因為在金剛經裡說在修行悟道上, 是男是女也是無關重要的。

大乘佛教的無性觀念進一步導致母親形象的宗教光輝化。這的確是最震撼的發展, 而且是與早期基本教條完全不符的, 因母親被認為是輪迴再生的始因, 就如年輕女子被認為是色誘原因一樣而受鄙視。只有在僧侶把母親原型從它如交媾和分娩等「自然」表徵中解脫後才能把母親的典範化。大乘佛教的「大地母神」像般若佛母, 是超凡入聖, 不染凡塵污穢(性事及懷胎)的。

她們有的只是她們與凡塵母親共通的和靄, 她們蔭護角色, 她們無條件樂於救拔及無止的愛心。這些大乘佛教的超凡母親的確是強大的守護神, 可是她們愈是具神通, 她們愈是消失在純粹神話中。她們代表著「大智」, 「空行母」, 「我佛慈悲」。然而, 在研究這些作為女性人物代表的來源後(在我們對金剛乘佛教分析裡將有詳細介紹), 她們全部原來都是一個至高無上的男性佛陀人物構想出來的產物。

作為這一章的最後, 我們想提及大乘佛教一個超出人們願意接受而經常出現的現象:「慈悲性交合」。獨身僧侶與女性性交事實上是在特殊情況下容許的: 如果是對該女子因懷悲憫而性交的話。與女性上床甚至是有道德必要性:「如果一個女人強烈愛慕一個菩薩, 將為他犧牲生命在所不惜, 那麼他有責任為拯救她生命而滿足她一切所求」(史提芬斯 (Stevens)引用1990年, 第56頁)。至少一些僧侶也許過於樂意去遵守這規定。

在現代佛教的西方中心裡, 不管修行是奉禪宗或是密教, 師傅跟女徒弟上床以求「開悟」上幫助她們並不罕見(布歇(Boucher)引用1985年, 第236頁)。但它多數是較親密的關係, 而非如近日亞洲上師那樣向美國訪問者自誇:「我跟一千個女人睡過, 其中一人是駝背的。我給她我的愛, 而她成了快樂的人…我是一塊「佛教百潔布」。百潔布是讓自己弄髒, 而同時把跟它接觸的一切都弄乾淨的」。(福萊 (Faure) 引用1994年, 第92頁) 。

注释:
(1)  梵語中的密傳(tantra), 就跟它藏文的同義(rguyd)一樣, 一字多解, 可是全都是來自像「線」, 「紡織」, 「網編」, 「脈絡」之類的名詞的歸類, 由此最後產生「系統」及「書籍」等字。跟從密傳教化的人就叫密宗行者或悉達。印度教與佛教的教義系統有所區別。後者是較專門研究有限數量的文字編寫及解釋的。

音乐盒

楼主辛苦了。

reed4yue

英文看不懂.

reed4yue

翻译了就好了.楼主辛苦

今生今世0710

{:soso_e179:}

youani

我们从来不缺少信仰，也不缺少汉奸，更不缺少坚持，所以，您继续达赖先生~~~~